<p>Brewerytown is a neighborhood in the North Philadelphia section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. An unofficial region, Brewerytown runs approximately between the Schuylkill River&#39;s eastern bank and 25th Street, bounded by Montgomery Avenue to the north and Parrish Street to the south. Brewerytown derived its name from the numerous breweries that were located along the Schuylkill during the late 19th century and early 20th century. It is now primarily a residential neighborhood, with a growing and active commercial sector along Girard Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest indications of the beer-brewery legacy in this neighborhood can be seen on maps from the 1860s, which list several minor German brewers and distillation facilities in this region. Proximity to the river and nearby farmland allowed these establishments to flourish, and as demands increased, so did development in Brewerytown. By the early 20th century it was a thriving German settlement. Much of the expansion into the early 20th century was handled by architect Otto Wolf, who oversaw the construction of over 60 buildings in the area, bringing a distinct German texture to the houses, saloons, and breweries of the area. Some of his buildings are still standing, including the Bergdoll Brewing complex, and F.A. Poth Brewing. Jefferson Street Grounds, the first home of the Philadelphia Athletics major league baseball team and site of the first ever Major League Baseball game, is located at 27th and Jefferson Streets in the neighborhood. It was also home to famed Columbia Park.</p><br>
<p>At its peak, 700 breweries operated across Philadelphia, several in a ten-block area of Brewerytown. With the collapse of local industry later in the 20th century, originally started by the implementation of Prohibition in the United States, and later beer production moving primarily to the Midwest, no brewer was operating in that neighborhood by 1987. The industry has slowly returned to the city, but at far below the capacity of its heyday. As of 2022, the only active brewery in Brewerytown is Crime & Punishment Brewing, which opened in 2015. During this late 20th-century slump, the entirety of North Philadelphia, Brewerytown included, was hit hard by economic depressions. Much of the area was deemed blighted by the city government.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the Brewerytown Historic District was certified by the National Register of Historic Places. The district contains 380 buildings and is roughly bounded by Cecil B Moore Ave., Pennsylvania Ave., 25th. and N. 33rd.</p><br>
<h3>Breweries</h3><br>
<p>Breweries that operated in the neighborhood included:</p><br>
<p>Bergner & Engel Brewing Company (Thompson Street between 32nd and 33rd, east side)</p><br>
<p>Charles Eisner Brewery (Thompson Street between 32nd and 33rd, west side)</p><br>
<p>F. A. Poth Brewing Company (31st & Jefferson Streets, NW corner)</p><br>
<p>H. Mueller Centennial Brewery (31st & Jefferson Streets, NE corner)</p><br>
<p>J. & P. Baltz Brewing Company (31st & Thompson Streets)</p><br>
<p>Arnholt & Schaefer Brewing Company (31st and Thompson Streets, NE corner)</p><br>
<p>G. Keller&#39;s Brewery (31st Street, west side, between Jefferson and Master)</p><br>
<p>J. Bentz&#39; Brewery (31st Street, west side, between Jefferson and Master)</p><br>
<p>Thomas Perot Brewery (31st and Master Streets, NW corner)</p><br>
<p>W. S. Perot (32nd and Thompson Streets, NW corner)</p><br>
<p>Goldbeck & Eisele (31st and Thompson Streets, NE corner)</p><br>
<p>Geo. F. Rothacker Brewery (31st Street, West side, between Thompson and Master)</p><br>
<p>Eble & Herter (33rd Street and Pennsylvania Avenue)</p><br>
<p>Francis Orth (later Burg & Pfaender, later Bergdoll Brewery; 33rd Street, south of Master Street)</p><br>
<p>Henzler & Flach Brewery</p><br>
<p>City Park Brewery (29th and Parrish Streets)</p><br>
<p>Commonwealth Brewing Company (28th and Cambridge Streets)</p><br>
<p>Keystone State Brewery (27th and Parrish Streets)</p><br>
<p>Peter Schemm and Son (West College Ave. and Poplar Street)</p><br>
<p>India Pale Ale Brewery (38th Street and Girard Avenue)</p><br>
<p>Michel Gosse (27th & Thompson Streets)</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>SEPTA Route 15, a heritage streetcar line, runs through the neighborhood and connects to Girard Station on the Broad Street Line as well as the Market–Frankford Line further east at Front Street. Bus Routes 7, and also serve the area, traveling along North 29th Street between the Strawberry Mansion and Fairmount neighborhoods and crossing the Benjamin Franklin Parkway to and from Center City</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Residents are in the School District of Philadelphia. Three K-8 schools include portions of the historic district: Edward Gideon, William Kelley, and Robert Morris. Morris residents are zoned to Vaux High School while the others are zoned to Strawberry Mansion High School.PDF maps as of 2012:</p><br>
<p>Previously Kelley was a feeder for Vaux High School.</p><br>
<p>The Little Theatre, commonly known as The Little, is a movie theatre located on East Avenue in downtown Rochester, New York, and a non-profit multiplex specializing in art film, including independent and foreign productions outside the United States.</p><br>
<p>Founded in 1929, The Little is one of the oldest theaters for art-house cinema in the United States. Since 2011, the Little Theatre has been an affiliate of the WXXI Public Broadcasting Council, a non-profit community organization which owns and operates the region&#39;s principal public radio and television stations.</p><br>
<p>The Little has served as a performance venue during the Rochester International Jazz Festival held annually in June. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the building was closed and the theater switched to an online format, streaming independent films from its website. Since 2021, the Little Theatre has been home to the High Falls Film Festival, a monthly series focused on celebrating women in film. In 2022, the theater received the Excellence in Historic Preservation award from the Preservation League of New York State for restoration work of its interior, which aimed to match the original 1929 appearance of the theater as closely as possible while improving its accessibility.</p><br>
<p>The Murdock School, also known as Old Murdock High School, is an historic school building on Murdock Avenue in Winchendon, Massachusetts. Built in 1887 to a design by Henry M. Francis, it is the towns most architecturally elaborate school building. It served as the towns high school until 1961, and now houses the local council on the aging. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The former Murdock School building is located in the town center of Winchendon, on 2 acre flanking the west side of Monument Park, west of the commercial downtown area. It is 2-1/2 story masonry structure, built out of red brick and covered by a slate roof. It is richly detailed in the Romanesque style, with a gabled pavilion projecting from its front facade. Prominent features of the projecting section are a tall square tower at the right side, with a pyramidal roof topped by a copper finial and cross. The left side of the projection has a less tall chimney adorned with brick corbelling and covered by a copper cap. The main entrance is in the center of the projection, recessed under a wide round arch.</p><br>
<p>The school was built in 1887 with funds donated by Captain Ephraim Murdock, Jr., whose father had previously donated the Winchendon Academy building to the town, and was a friend of educator Horace Mann. Operation of the school was originally funded by a trust fund established by Murdock, providing a college preparatory education at no cost to Winchendon students, and was administered by the town&#39;s school committee. In the early 20th century, the trust fund began to run out of funds, and the town took over funding. The building served the town as a school building until 1962, when a new high school (now an elementary school) was built to the north. The Murdock School was remodeled in 1974 and reopened in 1975 as part of a "middle school complex" in which grades six, seven, and eight varied in location between the Murdock, Poland, and Amro W. Streeter school buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Murdock School in art</h2><br>
<p>The Diamond Point School is a historic one-room school house in Nowata County, Oklahoma, at the junction of county roads 409 and 245. It was built in 1919 and was used through 1968. It is built of red brick and has a bell tower in one corner. It was restored in 1996 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997. It is set within a 1 acre school yard which includes the original playground equipment, including teeter-totters, a wooden merry-go-round, a slide, and a swingset. The grounds also include boys and girls outhouses and a more modern building which includes a kitchen and lunchroom. The school is open for tour by appointment, and is used for reunions, meetings and. It is also used by local schools for "A Day at Diamond Point", a program giving fourth grade students the experience of students in a one-room country schoolhouse during the 1950s.</p><br>
<p>The listing included four contributing buildings: the school, a combination coalhouse and garage, and two privies. A concrete block pumphouse was deemed non-contributing.</p><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester is located at 220 Winton Road South in Rochester, New York, USA The congregation is one of the largest in its denomination, the Unitarian Universalist Association. The non-creedal church conducts programs in the areas of spirituality, social concerns, music, and arts. This church is one of two Unitarian Universalist congregations in Monroe County, the other being First Universalist Church of Rochester.</p><br>
<p>The church was organized in 1829. Associated with social reform movements from its earliest days, it began attracting a group of reform activists from Quaker backgrounds in the 1840s, one of whom, Susan B. Anthony, became a national leader of the womens suffrage movement. After the first womens rights convention was held at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848, a follow-up convention, the Rochester Womens Rights Convention, was organized two weeks later at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester. Abigail Bush was elected to preside at this convention even though the idea of a woman chairing a public meeting was considered too daring even for some of the leaders of the emerging womens movement who were present.</p><br>
<p>Concern with social issues has been a recurring theme in the churchs history. In the late 1800s the church provided evening classes and other activities for children in the churchs low-income neighborhood. At the turn of the century, church members played leading roles in the campaign to open the University of Rochester to women and in the local, state, and national campaigns for women&#39;s suffrage. In the 1930s the church provided office space for Planned Parenthood when other accommodations were difficult to find. In 1988 the church began providing classroom support to Rochester city schools. In 2006 the church initiated a program to improve the quality of life in a small township in Honduras. In 2009 it established a talk line to offer non-judgmental support to women who have had abortions.</p><br>
<p>First Unitarian&#39;s building was designed by Louis Kahn and completed in 1962. It was described as one of "the most significant works of religious architecture of this century" in 1982 by Paul Goldberger, a Pulitzer-Prize-winning architectural critic.</p><br>
<h2>Congregation, beliefs, and programs</h2><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester in Rochester, New York, USA, is one of the largest in its denomination, the Unitarian Universalist Association. Its senior minister is Rev. Shari Halliday-Quan, and its assistant minister is Rev. AJ van Tine. The church conducts two weekly worship services on Sundays and an occasional Saturday service.</p><br>
<p>The church is non-creedal, having, in the words of its web site, "No single religious text. No ten commandments. No creed to which you must agree... This respect for individual particularity and openness to diverse sources of wisdom means our community is packed with a wide array of perspectives and beliefs." The churchs mission statement is: "Creating connection by listening to our deepest selves, opening to lifes gifts and serving needs greater than our own - every day!" The church school has a stated goal of encouraging children "to seek their own truths, to clarify their values, and to live lives of meaning inspired by those values."</p><br>
<p>The church operates on a Policy Governance system by which the board of trustees focuses on the long-term goals of the church while the parish minister oversees its operation. The board specifies the results expected from the parish minister and sets limits for his or her activities. The board does not specify how those expectations should be achieved, but it does evaluate the results. Officers of the church are elected by annual congregational meetings.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s the church developed a task force system to coordinate its activities in the area of social concerns. Members interested in a specific activity gather signatures to qualify as one of the church&#39;s task forces, which, if approved by the congregation, will be eligible to receive funds from the church budget. Oversight is provided by the Social Justice Council, which is composed largely of representatives from the task forces. Through this system, the church sponsors projects that provide classroom support for Rochester schools, temporary shelter within the church for homeless families, free Sunday suppers at a Catholic Worker program, improvements to the quality of life in a small township in Honduras, and other projects that focus on such issues as peace, reproductive rights, and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender concerns. The Council also oversees grant programs that provide financial support to community organizations.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s music and arts programs include a choir, a house band, a handbell choir, a drama group, a chamber music series, a coffee house, and an art gallery. Interest groups sponsored by the church include Soul Matters groups that focus on monthly worship themes, several types of meditation groups, Wellspring groups with programs of daily spiritual practice, Buddhist groups, qi gong, tai chi, book discussion groups, and several types of support groups.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>The First Unitarian Church of Rochester was organized in 1829.</p><br>
<p>The city of Rochester, located in western New York, was a young frontier boom town at the time, having been incorporated in 1817 and boosted by the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. The American Unitarian Association, the Unitarian national body, was also young, having been formed in 1825 by Christians who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.</p><br>
<p>Rochester Unitarians operated in the early years without a settled minister and, except for a brief period, without a church building. Informal leadership was provided by Myron Holley, a former Commissioner of the Erie Canal and one of the founders of the Liberty Party, which advocated the abolition of slavery. An early church history gave Holley primary credit for the church&#39;s establishment.</p><br>
<p>In 1842 Rufus Ellis, at the age of twenty-two, agreed to come to Rochester to be the congregations minister for a one-year period. Ellis lodged at the home of Dr. Matthew Brown, president of the congregation. Brown, who earlier was a member of the First Presbyterian Church, was one of Rochesters founders. Along with his brother, he had developed Browns Race, the canal that delivered water power to Rochesters factory district. He also served as the first chairman of the board of supervisors of Monroe County, in which Rochester is located. Brown was an opponent of slavery; on the day in 1827 when slaves in New York State were emancipated, a delegation of African Americans visited Brown to thank him for his work to secure that legislation.</p><br>
<p>Funds were raised under Ellis leadership for a new church building that was dedicated in 1843. In a letter to his brother, Ellis noted that "Forty-five of the pews are already sold or rented, and are occupied by correct people." During Ellis ministry the church approved a seal that contained an image of the Bible and the words "our Creed". Membership grew partly as a result of the Finney revival movement, which generated a wave of religious enthusiasm so strong in western New York that the area was sometimes called the "burned-over district." Not all churchgoers were comfortable with the new atmosphere in their congregations, however, and some transferred to the less doctrinaire Unitarian Church.</p><br>
<p>Frederick Holland, who became minister of First Unitarian in 1843, helped to stabilize the new congregation and increase its membership. He resigned in 1848 to assume leadership of the American Unitarian Association.</p><br>
<p>Dissention within the Quaker community eventually led some of its members to First Unitarian. When objections were raised to abolitionist activities, about 200 people withdrew from the regional Hicksite Quaker body in 1848 and formed an organization called the Congregational Friends. This group soon changed its name to the Friends of Human Progress and ceased to operate as a religious body, focusing instead on organizing annual meetings in Waterloo, New York that welcomed anyone interested in social reform, including "Christians, Jews, Mahammedans, and Pagans". In July 1848, a month after the split, four women associated with the Quaker dissidents met in Waterloo with anti-slavery activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton and issued a call for a Womens Rights Convention to be held a short distance away in Seneca Falls, thereby launching the modern womens rights movement. Organized on short notice, it nonetheless drew about 300 people, largely from the immediate area.</p><br>
<p>Momentum from this event led to the organization of another women&#39;s rights convention two weeks later at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester, about 50 mi west. The Rochester Convention took the significant step of electing a woman to preside, an idea that seemed so radical at the time that Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two organizers of the Seneca Falls convention, opposed it and left the platform when Abigail Bush took the chair. She performed her duties without incident, and a precedent was established.</p><br>
<p>The convention at First Unitarian was organized mainly by a circle of activists in Rochester led by Amy and Isaac Post, who had resigned from their Hicksite Quaker congregation in the mid-1840s when opposition to the Post&#39;s abolitionist activities was raised in the Quaker congregation. Several members of this circle had participated in the Seneca Falls convention, including Mary Hallowell, Catherine Fish Stebbins, and Amy Post, who convened the meeting at First Unitarian. Some of the organizers of the Rochester convention were also associated with First Unitarian, including Hallowell, Stebbins and Post.</p><br>
<p>A church history written in 1929 said, "Our church was probably by strong majority abolitionist, an earnest group of Hicksite Quakers having attached themselves to the church as their own meeting grew inactive and faded out—the Anthonys, Hallowells, Willises, Posts, Fishes, etc."</p><br>
<p>Of these families, the Anthonys were particularly significant for First Unitarian. Daniel Anthony was born a Quaker but married Lucy Reid, a Baptist, a violation of Quaker rules for which he was required to apologize to his congregation in central New York.</p><br>
<p>Susan B. Anthony, another Anthony daughter, was teaching school in central New York at the time and had little involvement with any of these activities. When she returned to Rochester in 1849, she found her family attending worship services at First Unitarian. She joined her family there, making it her church home</p><br>
<p>Susan B. Anthony is best known as an organizer and campaigner for womens rights, but she promoted other social reforms as well. In 1851 she helped sponsor an anti-slavery convention at First Unitarian. In 1852 she helped bring 500 women to Rochester to create the Womens State Temperance Society, of which she became the state agent. In 1853 she organized a Womens Rights Convention in Rochester with the assistance of the minister of First Unitarian. In 1857 she served as clerk of the Friends of Human Progress, the social reform group created by dissident Quakers and also became upstate New York agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society. She helped organize two more anti-slavery conventions in Rochester, one of which was so threatened by mob violence that she and her associates had to be escorted from the building by police for their own safety. Anthonys reform work, especially in the national campaign for women&#39;s right to vote, led her to spend most of her subsequent years on the road until advancing age required her to cut back on traveling and settle once again in Rochester.</p><br>
<p>After Rev. Holland&#39;s departure from First Unitarian in 1848, the congregation entered a period of discord and short-term ministries that lasted until after the Civil War. A history of the church written in 1881 notes that some of its members during that period "were persons of extreme and pronounced opinions, sharply opposed to each other on political and social questions," with slavery a key item of contention. and one of whom went on to become a chaplain in the Confederate Army.</p><br>
<p>A prominent minister of First Unitarian during this unsettled period was William Henry Channing, who served from 1853 to 1854. He wrote one of the two appeals that Anthony circulated as part of her women&#39;s suffrage work in New York state.</p><br>
<p>Channing wrote a brief inspirational text that has become known as "Channing&#39;s Symphony," which reads: "To live content with small means; to seek elegance rather than luxury, and refinement rather than fashion; to be worthy, not respectable, and wealthy, not rich; to listen to stars and birds, babes and sages, with open heart; to study hard; to think quietly, act frankly, talk gently, await occasions, hurry never; in a word, to let the spiritual, unbidden and unconscious, grow up through the common – this is my symphony."</p><br>
<p>Channing was important to the Anthony family. Mary Anthony said "The liberal preaching of William Henry Channing in 1852 proved so satisfactory that it was not long before this was our accepted church home." Susan B. Anthonys sense of spirituality was influenced by Channing. Her friend and co-worker Elizabeth Cady Stanton said in 1898, "She first found words to express her convictions in listening to Rev. William Henry Channing, whose teaching had a lasting spiritual influence upon her. To-day Miss Anthony is an agnostic. As to the nature of the Godhead and of the life beyond her horizon she does not profess to know anything. Every energy of her soul is centered upon the needs of this world. To her, work is worship... Her belief is not orthodox, but it is religious." Anthony expressed the latter thought in these words: "Work and worship are one with me. I can not imagine a God of the universe made happy by my getting down on my knees and calling him great.&#39;"</p><br>
<p>Channing had little success with his factionalized congregation. Finding that he could attract larger audiences when he spoke outside the church than within it, he even considered making a fresh start by forming a movement separate from the church. Instead he left the city for other posts, serving as chaplain of the USA House of Representatives during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The church declined afterwards, sometimes finding it difficult to pay its ministers, none of whom served for long. In 1859 the church&#39;s building was destroyed by fire. Rochester Unitarians were once again without either minister or building, a situation that was not resolved until after the Civil War."</p><br>
<h3>After the Civil War</h3><br>
<p>Frederick Holland, who had served as First Unitarian&#39;s minister in the 1840s, returned in 1865 as minister for an additional three years to help the congregation band together and construct a new church building, which was dedicated in 1866.</p><br>
<p>The ministry of Newton Mann, who served from 1870 to 1888, was a period of stability and growth.</p><br>
<p>Mann supported the idea that the Bible has a human rather than a supernatural origin in A Rational View of the Bible, written in 1879, saying that a rational approach to the Bible makes it more appealing by giving it "a purely human quality which quite atones for all the mistakes it contains."</p><br>
<p>In 1870 Mann was invited to give an evening lecture at Temple Brith Kodesh, Rochesters oldest and largest synagogue. This interfaith event, the first of its type in Rochester, contributed to a formal split between reformers and traditionalists within Brith Kodesh and, according to The Jewish Community in Rochester by Stuart Rosenberg, "shook the Jewish community in America and even had reverberations abroad." First Unitarian and Brith Kodesh held a joint Thanksgiving service in 1871, and Rabbi Landsberg and Rev. Mann began the practice of exchanging pulpits, with each delivering the sermon for the others congregation. A history of Brith Kodesh describes the relationship between the two congregations during this period as "extremely close". In 1874 First Unitarian, Brith Kodesh, and the First Universalist Church of Rochester began their continuing tradition of holding annual Union Thanksgiving services. In 1884 Landsberg occupied the pulpit at First Unitarian for seven weeks while Mann was ill, attracting visitors from other denominations and, according to an early Rochester history, leading to speculation about the development of a universal church. The congregation of Brith Kodesh used First Unitarian as a temporary home in 1909 after their building was destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>In 1872 Susan B. Anthony convinced the election inspectors in her ward in Rochester that the recently enacted Fourteenth Amendment, which guaranteed equal protection to all citizens, implicitly gave women the right to vote. When the news spread that Anthony and her three sisters had succeeded in registering to vote, other women in Rochester also registered. Of the two dozen or so whose names are known, at least three worshiped with Anthony at First Unitarian. Mrs. Mann, the wife of First Unitarian&#39;s minister, attempted to register in her ward but was refused. On election day, only fifteen of those who had registered, including Anthony, were actually permitted to vote, and then only because the election inspector in that ward, a long-time abolitionist, defied orders and allowed them to do so. Susan B. Anthony was arrested for voting and found guilty in a widely publicized trial that generated protests across the country.</p><br>
<p>In 1878 the annual meeting of the National Woman Suffrage Association, which was founded by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, convened at the First Unitarian Church of Rochester on the thirtieth anniversary of the first Women&#39;s Suffrage Convention in Seneca Falls.</p><br>
<p>In 1883 First Unitarian vacated its building to make way for the construction of a new post office. To replace it, the congregation purchased an existing church building from the Third Presbyterian Church of Rochester, which had moved to another location.</p><br>
<h3>Gannett ministry</h3><br>
<p>William Channing Gannett served as minister from 1889 to 1908. He came from a prominent Unitarian family, his father, Ezra Stiles Gannett, having written the constitution for the American Unitarian Association and served as its first secretary. William Channing Gannett himself had gained prominence as a leader of the successful movement within the denomination to end the practice of binding it by a formal creed, thereby opening its membership to non-Christians and even to non-theists. While pastor of a Unitarian church in Wisconsin before coming to Rochester, he had served as vice president of that states womens suffrage association.</p><br>
<p>Mary Thorn Lewis Gannett, Rev. Gannett&#39;s wife, was "very nearly his co-pastor," according to a church history. In Rochester, however, she was active in the First Unitarian Church and assisted in the formation of several community organizations.</p><br>
<p>The Gannetts focused their energy on social issues. Urging the congregation to be "a seven-day instead of a one-day church", Rev. Gannett encouraged it to become more involved with its downtown neighborhood of low-income immigrants.</p><br>
<p>The Gannetts accordingly initiated the Boys Evening Home, which opened in 1890 in the churchs parish house. Within three months its membership had grown to 95 even though some of its members had to leave because they had been sentenced to the State Industrial School. By 1893 the Home had a paid superintendent and was teaching classes in manual arts and drawing, and by 1898 its offerings had expanded to include such subjects as current events, zoology, literature and journalism. A small newspaper produced by the boys campaigned against penny slot machines, which were illegal gambling devices that could be found in candy stores. The neighborhood boys came largely from Polish and Russian Jewish immigrant families. When they reached their late teens, several members of the Boys Evening Home formed the Judean Club in Rochester, which eventually became, according to Rosenbergs The Jewish Community in Rochester, "the most important cultural forum in the Jewish community of that time." At least four members of the Boys Evening Home went on to become rabbis, one of whom credited Rev. Gannett with helping him choose that profession. Benjamin Goldstein, another member, became executive secretary of Temple Brith Kodesh. Another former member, Meyer Jacobstein, was elected to the House of Representatives in Washington. Volunteers from Brith Kodesh assisted the work of the Boys Evening Home.</p><br>
<p>From 1889 to 1908 Mary Gannett led First Unitarians Womens Alliance, through which "much of the churchs activity was organized and executed". About 1902 the Womens Alliance opened the Neighborhood Friendly for Girls, which provided classes in housekeeping, cooking, and sewing for girls in the church neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The Gannetts sponsored the formation of the Unity Club in 1889, which was initiated by the Womens Alliance but was open to anyone in Rochester. With as many as a hundred members, it was divided into small classes under the tutelage of the Gannetts for the intensive study of such thinkers as Thoreau, Hawthorne, George Eliot, and the Fabians. The secretary of the Social Topics class, which examined social problems of the day, was Emma Sweet, a member of First Unitarian who was Susan B. Anthonys secretary.</p><br>
<p>In 1889 Mary Gannett established the Woman&#39;s Ethical Club, an interfaith organization that discussed the ethical aspects of social topics and campaigned for the admission of women to the University of Rochester. By the middle of the 1890s, the Ethical Club was attracting several hundred women to its meetings.</p><br>
<p>Other members of First Unitarian engaged in social and political work during the Gannett years. Mary Anthony, sister of Susan B. Anthony, was active in many aspects of church life and was also deeply involved with the campaign for womens rights. In 1885 a group of women gathered at her home to establish the Womens Political Club, later known as the Political Equality Club. This group of about forty women achieved several breakthroughs, including the appointment of Rochesters first police matron, the placement of women doctors on the citys health staff, and the appointment of women to state institutional boards. Mary Gannett was a member of the club for over twenty years and held various offices.</p><br>
<p>In 1891 African American activist Hester C. Jeffrey moved to Rochester. She joined Rochesters AME Zion Church and helped organize womens clubs in the African American community. She also developed strong ties to First Unitarian, often attending services there and forming close friendships with Susan B. Anthony and Mary Gannett. She joined the Political Equality Club and created a suffrage club for African American women called the Susan B. Anthony Club. In 1895, while keeping her membership in AME Zion, she also became a member of First Unitarian.</p><br>
<p>In 1891, at the age of 71, Susan B. Anthony decided to limit her work that required travel and to settle into the house she shared with her sister Mary in Rochester. She resumed routine attendance at First Unitarian, Later that year she was invited to speak at the annual Union Thanksgiving service, which was held that year at First Unitarian. Its theme was "The Unrest of the Times a Cause for Thankfulness". Anthony spoke on the women&#39;s movement.</p><br>
<p>In 1893 Susan B. Anthony became the main force behind the formation of the Rochester branch of the Women&#39;s Educational and Industrial Union, which worked for the educational and social advancement of women. Mary Gannett presided at the founding meeting and became the chair of its Legal Protection Committee, often becoming personally involved in protecting working women from dishonest employers. In 1911 she became president of the organization.</p><br>
<p>In 1893 Mary Anthony became corresponding secretary of the New York State Woman Suffrage Association. During the statewide drive that year for the right of women to vote in New York elections, the Anthony home was converted into campaign headquarters, with public offices in the parlor and other activities throughout the rest of the house.</p><br>
<p>In 1898 Susan B. Anthony called and chaired a meeting of 73 local womens societies to form the Rochester Council of Women, later known as the Rochester Federation of Womens Clubs. At its first meeting it renewed the campaign to elect a woman to the local school board even though women were still not allowed to vote. Mary Gannett, speaking for both the Council of Women and the Womens Educational and Industrial Union, played a major role in this campaign, which succeeded when both major parties were convinced to nominate the same woman. The Council of Womens consumers committee, headed by Mrs. Max (Miriam) Landsberg of Brith Kodesh and Mary Gannett, developed into the local chapter of the National Consumers League.</p><br>
<p>The long campaign to open the University of Rochester to women students involved several members of First Unitarian and organizations they had helped to create. The Democrat and Chronicle, a local newspaper, writing several years after the event, said that next to Susan B. Anthony, Mary Gannett was chiefly responsible for the success of this campaign.</p><br>
<p>Susan B. Anthony had formed a committee as early as 1879 to pressure the university to admit women, but without success. In 1889 the Womens Political Club renewed the campaign with a series of articles in local newspapers. During a meeting in 1891 at the Anthony home, university officials agreed to admit women if $200,000 could be raised to defray costs. The Womens Ethical Club initiated a fund-raising drive, and Susan B. Anthony and Rev. William Channing Gannett appealed for contributions at a public meeting at the Chamber of Commerce. This drive, however, was unsuccessful.</p><br>
<p>In 1898 the university once again agreed to admit women if enough money could be raised and in 1899 lowered the necessary amount to $50,000. Most of that amount had already been raised, with Mary Gannett playing a leading role in that effort. Just after Susan B. Anthony returned home from a trip to Wyoming, however, she was informed the evening before the deadline that the drive was still $8000 short. With seemingly no possibility of raising additional money, and with renewed opposition among the university trustees, this drive seemed to have failed also. Determined to succeed, Susan B. Anthony, at the age of 81, rode the next morning in a carriage in a last-minute push to close the funding gap, which she accomplished by raising the entire amount from members of First Unitarian, including herself and her sister Mary.</p><br>
<p>Although Susan B. Anthony worked on several local projects during this period, she remained deeply involved in national activities as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, working for an amendment to give women the right to vote. Generally known as the Anthony Amendment, it became the Nineteenth Amendment to the USA Constitution in 1920. When the Anthony sisters traveled to Berlin in 1904 for the founding of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, Susan B. Anthony was declared its first member and Mary Anthony its second.</p><br>
<h3>Early to mid-1900s</h3><br>
<p>Edwin A. Rumball, who served as minister from 1908 to 1915, continued the orientation toward social service that had been established in the Gannett years. In 1910 the churchs parish house was expanded to provide better quarters for the Boys Evening Home and was named Gannett House to honor Rev. Gannett, who had retired two years earlier.</p><br>
<p>From 1910 to 1914 Rumball edited The Common Good, which "emerged as Rochesters leading journal of progressive reform" according to Affirming the Covenant: A History of Temple Brith Kodesh by Peter Eisenstadt. The magazine began in 1907 as the house bulletin of the Baden Street Settlement House, which was founded by the Temple Brith Kodesh Sisterhood to serve a neighborhood of mostly Jewish immigrants. When Rumball became editor in 1910, it expanded into a monthly journal devoted to social betterment of the city. Campaigning for such things as cleaner milk supplies and better conditions for factory workers, the publication was fatally weakened when a strike in the local clothing industry created an atmosphere of bitterness that led to a sharp decline in advertising revenues, which in turn led to the magazines demise in 1914.</p><br>
<p>Rumball became the secretary of the Rochester City Club when it was formally organized in 1910 to provide programs for weekly luncheons at a downtown hotel. Membership grew to be in the hundreds, and the programs, which included such speakers as Jane Addams and Felix Frankfurter, often made headline news. Women, who had their own Women&#39;s City Club, were expected to listen from the balcony. Mary Gannett created a stir by inviting two African American men to sit with her in the balcony who later joined the club as regular members. She was also invited to accompany two speakers to the platform: anarchist Emma Goldman and African American scholar and activist W. E. B. Du Bois. She joined the club herself when membership was opened to women in 1937.</p><br>
<p>Frank Doan became the minister of First Unitarian in 1922. Formerly a professor at the Meadville Unitarian seminary, he was one of the originators of the religious humanism movement within the denomination. He retired in 1925 at the age of 48 because of ill health and died two years later.</p><br>
<p>David Rhys Williams was minister from 1928 to 1958. In 1933 Williams became one of the 34 signers of the Humanist Manifesto, which, among other things, declared the universe to be self-existing and not created, rejected the duality between mind and body, and called for religion to be reformed in light of the scientific spirit.</p><br>
<p>Williams was an advocate of family planning and served on the executive committee of the local Birth Control League. The federal Comstock laws made it difficult at that time to be closely associated with any aspect of birth control. When Margaret Sanger, a national leader of the family planning movement, spoke at Temple B&#39;rith Kodesh in 1932, she was arrested for answering a question from the audience about where birth control devices could be obtained. Williams preached a sermon on "The Spiritual Significance of Voluntary Motherhood" and invited Sanger to speak from the pulpit at First Unitarian a few weeks after she was arrested. A group of eight women, including Wilma Lord Perkins from First Unitarian, subsequently formed an organization that eventually became Planned Parenthood of Rochester/Syracuse. When the organization found it difficult to obtain office space elsewhere, First Unitarian provided them space in Gannett House from 1934 to 1937.</p><br>
<p>In 1933 a group of Quakers began meeting in the home of Mary Gannett for the purpose of reestablishing a formal presence in Rochester, where the last Quaker organization had disbanded in 1915. The new Quaker group began holding worship services the following year in Gannett House, First Unitarian&#39;s parish house. Gannett encouraged the new organization while continuing to devote her support activities to the First Unitarian Church of Rochester.</p><br>
<p>In 1940 Time magazine gave the church national publicity with an article about its ordination of James Ziglar Hanner as a Unitarian minister in an unusual ceremony that included two rabbis. Rabbi Phillip S. Bernstein of Brith Kodesh gave Hanner his pastoral charge, basing it on the Hebrew text The Ethics of the Fathers. The service closed with the singing of Yigdal, the hymn that had been translated from Hebrew to English in 1883 by Rabbi Landsberg of Brith Kodesh and Rev. Mann of First Unitarian. Rev. Hanner began his ministry in Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, during the McCarthy period, Williams&#39; brother, Albert Rhys Williams, was accused by the House Un-American Activities Committee of having supported the Communist Party from 1919 to 1929. Rev. Williams supported his brother and criticized his attackers. Thirteen members of the congregation accused Williams of being soft on Communism and attempted to have him dismissed from the pulpit. When the issue was put to a congregational vote, the only votes against Williams were the thirteen who had made the accusation, all of whom subsequently left the church. A prominent member of First Unitarian who supported Williams during this controversy was Frank Gannett, founder of the Gannett newspaper chain, who had campaigned for the Republican nomination to run against Franklin Delano Roosevelt in the 1940 presidential elections.</p><br>
<p>In 1957 several members of the congregation formed the Rochester Memorial Society, later called the Funeral Consumers Alliance of Greater Rochester, to encourage simple rather than ostentatious funeral services. By 1975 its membership had grown to over a thousand families. As of 2011, its mailing address continued to be the same as that of First Unitarian.</p><br>
<h3>New building by Louis Kahn</h3><br>
<p>In 1958 Williams announced his intention to retire after 30 years of service. Three months later, while searching for his replacement, the church was informed that a project to build a downtown shopping mall would require the space occupied by their building, forcing the church to deal with two major issues at the same time.</p><br>
<p>The existing building had several deficiencies, and the church had been wrestling with problems of growth. Church committees had been investigating several alternatives including expanding the existing building, constructing a new church school, establishing daughter congregations, and purchasing the building that Temple B&#39;rith Kodesh was vacating.</p><br>
<p>The church voted to sell their building to the Midtown Plaza developers in January 1959 with the understanding that they could continue to occupy it until July 1961. Construction activity nearby, however, soon weakened the building, forcing the congregation to move in September 1959. The church held Sunday services at the Dryden Theatre of the George Eastman House until a new building could be constructed.</p><br>
<p>First Unitarian&#39;s previous building was architecturally significant, having been designed by Richard Upjohn, the first president of the American Institute of Architects. The church decided to replace it with a building designed "by a leading 20th century architect, giving the community a notable example of contemporary architecture." The congregation voted to hire Louis Kahn in June 1959 to design their new building, which was completed in 1962.</p><br>
<h3>Mid-1900s to present</h3><br>
<p>In 1961 the American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America merged to form the Unitarian Universalist Association. The possibility of merging Rochester&#39;s First Unitarian and First Universalist churches, which had conducted a joint church school in the 1950s and whose buildings had been only a block apart before the old Unitarian church was demolished two years earlier, was considered but not acted upon.</p><br>
<p>William Jenkins was minister from 1959 to 1963 and also served as president of the newly merged Unitarian Universalist Ministers&#39; Association. Robert West was minister from 1963 until 1969, when he resigned to become president of the Unitarian Universalist Association.</p><br>
<p>In 1963 the church&#39;s Social Action Committee played the key role in creating Community Interests, Inc, an organization that provided minority families with housing loans. That organization was later absorbed by the Monroe County Housing Council.</p><br>
<p>In 1964 rapid growth in membership led the church to begin offering two Sunday worship services and church school sessions, with classes for older children relocated to the Harley School to ease crowding. Despite having originally informed Kahn that there would be no need to design the church to accommodate future enlargement, the church trustees decided in September 1964, less than two years after it was completed, to expand the building. Louis Kahn was hired once again as architect, and the addition was completed in May 1969.</p><br>
<p>Richard Gilbert served as minister from 1970 until his retirement in 2002. Gilbert became one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II in 1973. During the 1970s Gilbert was a member of the Clergy Consultation Service on Abortion, a group of ministers and rabbis who helped women find safe abortions at a time when it was still illegal.</p><br>
<p>In 1980 Gilbert wrote The Prophetic Imperative: Unitarian Universalist Foundations for a New Social Gospel, a book used in seminars given by the denomination&#39;s Social Justice Empowerment Program. In 1983 Gilbert published the first of three volumes of Building Your Own Theology, a guidebook for examining and clarifying personal values and beliefs in a group setting. It became the most widely used adult education curriculum within the denomination.</p><br>
<p>In 1982 church member Joyce Gilbert called a meeting that led to the formation of the Unitarian Universalist Musicians Network. She and Ed Schell, First Unitarians Minister of Music, served first as members of the organizing committee and then as presidents of the new organization. With a membership of several hundred, the organization played a major role in producing the denominations new hymnals.</p><br>
<p>In 1988 the church volunteers began providing classroom support to Rochester city schools in a program called the UU/Schools Partnership.</p><br>
<p>Kaaren Anderson and Scott Tayler arrived as Parish Co-Ministers in 2004. In 2006 the church began its Greater Good Project, which asks members to cut their usual Holiday spending in half and contribute the other half to community projects. In its first year the congregation contributed $79,000, part of which was used to initiate the church&#39;s Honduras Project, which works to improve the quality of life in a small Honduras township.</p><br>
<p>In 2007 the church originated Wellspring, a program of spiritual deepening that has since been adopted by other Unitarian Universalist congregations.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 the church&#39;s Reproductive Rights Task Force began the process of establishing a talk line to offer "support without judgment" to women who have had abortions.</p><br>
<p>Because of growth in membership, in 2010 the church began offering a Saturday worship service in addition to the two Sunday services.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, Shari Halliday-Quan was called as senior minister.</p><br>
<p>Old South Church in Boston, Massachusetts, also known as New Old South Church or Third Church, is a historic United Church of Christ congregation first organized in 1669. Its present building was designed in the Gothic Revival style by Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, completed in 1873, and amplified by the architects Allen & Collens between 1935–1937. The church, which was built on newly filled land in the Back Bay section of Boston, is located at 645 Boylston Street on Copley Square. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architectural significance as one of the finest High Victorian Gothic churches in New England. It is home to one of the oldest religious communities in the United States.</p><br>
<h2>History of the congregation</h2><br>
<p>Established in 1669, Old South Church is one of the older religious communities in the United States. It was organized by Congregationalist dissenters from Bostons First Church. It was known as the Third Church (to distinguish it from the First and Second Congregational churches in the city). The Third Churchs congregation met first in their Cedar Meeting House (1670), then at the Old South Meeting House (1729) at the corner of Washington and Milk Streets in Boston.</p><br>
<p>Members of the congregation have included founders Edward Raynsford, Thomas Savage, John Alden, John Hull, Judith Quincy Hull and parishioners Daniel Quincy, John Alden Jr., Samuel Adams, William Dawes, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Sewall, and Phillis Wheatley. In 1773, Samuel Adams gave the signals from the Old South Meeting House for the "war whoops" that started the Boston Tea Party.</p><br>
<p>During the Unitarian Movement of the early 19th century, Old South was the sole Congregational Church in Boston to adhere to the doctrine of Trinitarianism. In 1816 Old South Church joined with Park Street Church to form the City Mission Society, a social justice society to serve Boston&#39;s urban poor.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, Old South became a recruiting center for the Union Army under minister Jacob Manning. Though the congregation was not entirely abolitionist, it strongly supported the Union cause. The conclusion of the Civil War was followed by an expansive time of increased inclusion for the congregation. Under minister George Angier Gordon, the congregation moved from its meeting house at Washington Street to its Back Bay location in 1875, occupying the present church constructed on newly filled land.</p><br>
<p>Old South&#39;s commitment to urban ministry and care continued into the 20th century. It has included new members who have been increasingly diverse by race, class, and sexual orientation. The congregation has formally adopted a platform of equality, social justice, and peace.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The church building was designed between 1870 and 1872 by the Boston architectural firm of Cummings and Sears in the Venetian Gothic style. The style follows the precepts of the British cultural theorist and architectural critic John Ruskin (1819–1900) as outlined in his treatise The Stones of Venice. Old South Church in Boston remains one of the most significant examples of Ruskin&#39;s influence on American architecture. The architects, Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, also designed the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. The exterior of the church is primarily built of Roxbury Conglomerate commonly called puddingstone. Many arches, and several walls of stone, are striped with alternating courses of yellow-beige and deep red sandstone. The porticos and large open arches in the campanile are decorated with simple plate tracery. The upper arches of the porticos are decorated with screens of ornate wrought iron. The building is roofed in alternating bands of red and dark gray slate and the roofline finished with ornamental iron cresting.</p><br>
<h3>Campanile</h3><br>
<p>A tall tower, or campanile, is the trademark feature of Old South and is visible from several Boston neighborhoods. The tower, on the western end of the church, rises to a height of 246 and houses the churchs 2,020-pound bell. This is the second campanile built on the same site, designed by Allen & Collens it is similar to the 1875 design in its use of Moorish arches. The first tower, completed in 1875 along with the present Narthex and sanctuary, had begun to list by the late 1920s. The cause was determined to be the faulty footings and piles anchored in the soft former swampland. They were insufficient for the load of the tower. The congregation engaged the architectural firm of Allen & Collens to design a replacement campanile and a new chapel to be named in memory of the Reverend George Angier Gordon. The tower was dismantled, and early 1930s technology of steam shovel and steel pilings provided a lasting solution. Today, the pitch and height of the tower are tested annually and records attest to its enduring stability. The bell wheel, which by motion of a heavy rope swings the large bell, had deteriorated by the late 20th century requiring that the bell be rung by an external hammer. A faithful reconstruction of the original 1931 bell wheel, installed in early fall 2006, returned Old South&#39;s bell to "full swing."</p><br>
<h3>Lantern</h3><br>
<p>Centered above the Sanctuary on the east side of the church is a copper clad cupola surrounded by twelve ornate gothic arched windows. This feature is reminiscent of the cupolas of the Basilica of St. Mark in Venice. While the lantern provides a striking visual presence, it was also built with function in mind. In the days before mechanical fans and air conditioning, a series of mechanically operated louvers allowed for window panels to be opened to help cool the sanctuary inside.</p><br>
<h2>Decorative arts</h2><br>
<p>The interior of Old South is exuberant yet quietly modulates the mix of rich materials: highly carved Italian cherry woodwork, limestone, stenciled plaster, and stained glass. The sanctuary is entered from the narthex through a screen carved in the Venetian Gothic style from French Caen limestone. Hidden among the carved foliage that decorates the screen can be found a squirrel, lizard, owl, and snail. A similar theme of animals is also found in the carving of the buildings exterior. The interior of the chancel at the east end of the church, behind the choir, is faced by a running screen of wooden arches with quatrefoil lunettes adapted from the upper arcade of the Doges Palace in Venice. The stained glass windows are by the English stained glass manufacturers Clayton and Bell and were produced in the style of 15th-century English glass.</p><br>
<h3>1875 Cummings and Sears interior</h3><br>
<p>When Old Souths church opened in 1875 it looked very much as it does today, based upon the design of Cummings and Sears. The walls were decorated in polychrome stenciling in shades of complex tertiary colors: a rose madder background with overlays of ochre, bay leaf green, warm gray, and persimmon, and highlights of metallic gold. Most of the interior structure, except for the carved wood frieze along the balconies, was already in place by 1875. High above the crossing of the transepts and nave is the lantern, or cupola. The ceiling of the lantern was painted a deep Prussian blue with a pattern of gilded stars to represent the firmament of God. The limestone tracery of the west wall of the sanctuary, with its foliage and animals, combined with the highly carved foliated woodwork and the overhead representation of the nighttime sky was intended to echo Gods creation. Above the doors on the east chancel walls are glass mosaics of the tree of life by Antonio Salviati. A third mosaic by Salviati originally hung in the tympanum above the towers front doors. That mosaic was relocated to the vestibule when the tower was rebuilt 1922-1937. The combined effect was extremely rich; at once a spiritual and sensuous experience, and in great contrast to the chaste interior of Old South Meeting House on Washington Street. Stylistically the 1875 interior was in harmony with the Ruskinian Gothic exterior, and expressed Ruskins ideal that it is "in art that the heart, the head, and the hand of a man come together."</p><br>
<h3>1905 Tiffany interior</h3><br>
<p>In 1905 the congregation engaged Louis Comfort Tiffany to redecorate the sanctuary. Tiffany headed a group of artisans called the Associated Artists who worked largely in a style now described as the Aesthetic Movement. Tiffany was a part of an emerging American view of design in the United States, increasingly taking fewer cues from Europe. Tiffany had decorated Mark Twains home in Hartford, Connecticut, the state rooms at the White House, and several Back Bay homes. In some ways Tiffany was an expected choice to redecorate Old South. He followed many of the ideas of John Ruskin; he believed in the dignity and importance of the human hand and eye in the decorative arts. Yet Tiffany arrived at Old South at a time when his gilded age style had begun a decline. A new wave of neoclassicism called Beaux-Arts, and the Colonial Revival style were replacing Victorian ornament with a simpler classicism. Theodore Roosevelts 1902 White House renovation removed all of the Tiffany influence. In Tiffanys redecoration, Old Souths stained glass windows were covered by insets of translucent tinted purple glass. The original polychrome stenciled plaster walls were painted purple, then stenciled in a series of geometric patterns with metallic silver paint intended to appear as mother of pearl inlay. Similar to Tiffanys work at Mark Twains Hartford, Connecticut home, or his design for the White House&#39;s Red Room. The resulting work at Old South was a highly ornamented visual experience, unified by a limited color palette.</p><br>
<h3>1950s minimalism</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1950s, possibly influenced by the minimalism of the International Style, a second renovation of the Sanctuary took place. The mid-20th-century renovation largely ignored the architectural history of the church. Louis Comfort Tiffanys paint and stenciling was obscured by a coat of light gray paint, and the purple Tiffany glass installed over the stained glass was removed. The oculus of the cupola was closed up. In some ways the removal of decoration recalled the congregations Puritan roots.</p><br>
<h3>Recognition and restoration</h3><br>
<p>Old South Church&#39;s building was designated a USA National Historic Landmark in 1970.</p><br>
<p>In 1984 a research-driven restoration was begun. The period of the buildings construction was adopted, using old photographs and engravings as sources, and paint analysis to replicate original colors, the interior spaces were returned closely to their 1875 appearance. Walls were repainted rose madder and the original Cummings and Sears stencil patterns were recreated. The cupola was reopened, once more admitting light to the Sanctuary below. Polychrome stenciling repeated the original palette of ochre, bay leaf green, warm gray, and persimmon with metallic gold.</p><br>
<h2>Organ</h2><br>
<p>The church&#39;s present organ, Opus 308, was built in 1921 by E. M. Skinner & Company of Boston for the Municipal Auditorium Theater in St. Paul, Minnesota, and brought to the church in 1985 when that building was demolished. Originally 82 ranks and 5,728 pipes, it now has 115 ranks and 7,625 pipes ranging from 0.25 in to 32 ft in length. The church had previously installed another Skinner organ in 1915; its successful inaugural concert series featured organists William C. Hammond, Gaston Dethier, Edwin Arthur Kraft, Charles Heinroth, and T. Tertius Noble.</p><br>
<p>The organ console is located behind the pulpit and is on a hydraulic platform so that it may be raised for concerts and recessed for worship services. The organs pipes are located behind and to the right and left of the chancel and also at the back of the rear balcony above the entrance to the Sanctuary (32 and chamade). Ten ornately painted wooden pipes are mounted at the front of each side balcony.</p><br>
<p>In December 2008, construction at the adjacent MBTA Copley station created a crack in the church&#39;s exterior and damage in the sanctuary. Out of fear that its use might cause further damage, the organ was not used from then until just before Easter in 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Bay Psalm Book</h2><br>
<p>Old South Church is the owner of one of eleven remaining first-edition copies of the Bay Psalm Book. The Bay Psalm Book, printed in 1640 by Stephen Daye, "was the first book printed in the what became the United States." Until 2013, when one copy was sold at auction to David Rubenstein, Old South Church owned two of the eleven first-edition copies. Old South Church&#39;s copy of the Bay Psalm Book is currently housed in the Rare Books Department of the Boston Public Library.</p><br>
<h2>Senior ministers</h2><br>
<p>To date twenty ministers have served Old South&#39;s congregation as Senior Minister; they are:</p><br>
<p>Thomas Thacher 1670-1678</p><br>
<p>Samuel Willard 1678-1707</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Pemberton 1700-1717</p><br>
<p>Joseph Sewall 1713-1769</p><br>
<p>Thomas Prince 1718-1730</p><br>
<p>Thomas Prince 1730-1758</p><br>
<p>Alexander Cumming 1761-1763</p><br>
<p>Samuel Blair 1766-1769</p><br>
<p>John Hunt/John Bacon 1771-1775</p><br>
<p>Joseph Eckley 1779-1811</p><br>
<p>Joshua Huntington 1808-1819</p><br>
<p>Benjamin B. Wisner 1821-1832 (departed in 1832 to become a Corresponding Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions)</p><br>
<p>Samuel H. Stearns 1834-1836</p><br>
<p>George W. Blagden 1836-1872</p><br>
<p>Jacob M. Manning 1857-1882</p><br>
<p>George Angier Gordon 1884-1927</p><br>
<p>Russell Henry Stafford 1927-1945</p><br>
<p>Frederick M. Meek 1946-1973</p><br>
<p>James W. Crawford 1974-2002</p><br>
<p>Carl F. Schultz Jr. 2002-2005 (Interim)</p><br>
<p>Nancy S. Taylor 2005-2022</p><br>
<p>Rich Spalding 2022-2023 (Interim)</p><br>
<p>John M Edgerton 2023 -</p><br>
<p>Ferry Farm, also known as the George Washington Boyhood Home Site or the Ferry Farm Site, is the farm and home where George Washington spent much of his childhood. The site is located in Stafford County, Virginia, along the northern bank of the Rappahannock River, across from the city of Fredericksburg. In July 2008, archaeologists announced that they had found remains of the boyhood home, which had suffered a fire during 1740, including artifacts such as pieces of a cream-colored tea set probably belonging to Georges mother, Mary Ball Washington. In 2015, the George Washington Foundation began constructing a replica of Washingtons boyhood home on the site of the original building. The replica house was completed in 2018 and is open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The farm was named after the Washington family had left the property. Its namesake was a free ferry that crossed the Rappahannock River on Washington land—the family did not own or operate it. It is unclear what the farm was called during the Washington occupancy. Sometime in the late 19th century the farm became known as Pine Grove, as well as The Ferry Farm. The farm rose to national prominence during the Washington Birth Bicentennial of 1932—during the years surrounding this celebration some authors cited both the names Ferry Farm and Pine Grove.</p><br>
<h3>Before Washington</h3><br>
<p>Over thousands of years, American Indians periodically inhabited the lands that today make up Ferry Farm. Archaeological finds include a spear point made over 10,000 years ago by a big-game hunter, numerous tools associated with bands of hunter/gatherers, and pottery created by native farmers.</p><br>
<p>The first European claim on the property was a land patent granted to John Catlett in 1666. By 1710, the tract had been subdivided into several small farms, with Maurice Clark in ownership of what would become Ferry Farm. In 1727, the property was sold to William Strother, a lawyer, and a Burgess for the newly formed King George County.</p><br>
<p>In 1738, George Washington&#39;s father, Augustine, acquired the plantation from the Strother estate. Augustine Washington held political office, owned several thriving plantations, and was a managing partner of Accokeek Iron Furnace located six miles north of Ferry Farm on a tributary of the Potomac River. He moved to Ferry Farm in the fall of 1738 with his second wife, Mary Ball Washington, and their five young children.</p><br>
<h3>Washington-era</h3><br>
<p>George Washingtons biographers could claim three locations significant as his homesteads through his lifetime. Popes Creek, Virginia from 1732 to 1735 was his birthplace. Little Hunting Creek, later to be renamed Mount Vernon by elder brother Lawrence after his 1743 inheritance of the property was briefly the family home to Augustine and Mary Washington and their brood of five including his third son George, from 1735 to 1738. The Washington-era farm, then referred to by others as the Washington Farm and by the Washingtons as the Home Farm, had a 1½-story central-passage house, two rooms deep, perched atop a bluff on the Rappahannock River. It was built by Augustine Washington. Based on excavations at the site in 2008, the structure was approximately 54 ft wide by 28 ft deep. It was the second of five houses at the site. George was six when the family moved to the farm in 1738. He inherited the farm and lived in the house until his early 20s. However, George Washington was not sentimental about the land. Washington saw the land as a "crowded, busy, trouble-filled place of limited options." Washingtons father Augustine had left behind a small set of surveying instruments after he died. At the age of 16 Washington used his fathers surveying tools to survey for prominent Virginia grandees and instantly became hooked; George Washington had found his first true calling. Surveying linked George to his brother Lawrence and the Fairfaxes. At age 18 Washington was granted a 453-acre tract in western Frederick County by Lord Fairfax. Washington surveyed the 453 acres of land and also purchased an adjoining tract. Washington soon had acquired close to two thousand acres in western lands. Washington had acquired more land through his own hard work than Ferry Farm would be worth in the three years Washington had to wait to legally claim Ferry Farm. He often stayed with his half-brother Lawrence at Mount Vernon. Washington&#39;s mother lived in the house until 1772, when she moved to Fredericksburg, and the farm was sold to a friend Hugh Mercer. The Washington-era house was in ruinous condition by 1833.</p><br>
<h3>After Washington</h3><br>
<p>A new farmhouse was built at the site in 1850 for the use of an overseer. It was the site of skirmishing during the American Civil War in 1862. Because of these encounters, many significant battles occurred in the city surrounding Ferry Farm, although no battles occurred on the actual site.</p><br>
<p>Ferry Farm was periodically occupied by Union Soldiers as a war campground, which military personnel used to prepare for battle.</p><br>
<p>In 1862, amid the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln, familiar with Weems&#39; Washington myths, toured Ferry Farm. While occupying the Farm, many soldiers familiar with the Cherry Tree Myth, carved trinkets, such as rings, from a tree they believed to be the myth.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1920s, the property has been the subject of many preservation and money-making schemes. James Beverly Colbert sought to profit from the lands associations with Washington. The writer George Allan England agreed to write real-estate ads promoting the historical value of the land for a $5,000 fee upon the lands sale. He made full use of the many Weems tales. Colbert also helped promote the thought that a non-important structure called "The Surveyor Shed," was a genuine relic, though it was not. Since the bicentennial celebration of George Washingtons Birthday was approaching, Colbert and England thought the land would sell quickly, but there were other historical sites vying for preservation and the Great Depression finally killed their dream.</p><br>
<p>In each subsequent decade, different groups of preservationists have tried to make a "national shrine" out of Washingtons boyhood home. The 1960s saw the creation of a home for troubled boys on the site. This project left on the landscape the sites most visible feature—a large pseudo-Georgian building which now houses a museum, offices, and archaeological lab, which, since 2006, is viewable for visitors.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s Stafford Countys Board of Supervisors set out to both preserve the site and bring business to the county. Their attempts ultimately led to rezoning and a bid by Wal-Mart to buy the property and construct a large store adjacent to the boyhood site. This was opposed by many in Fredericksburg, which would have been able to see the back of the store from town. There was a widespread feeling that such a change in this historical towns viewshed would have had adverse effects on the towns crucial tourist trade as well as harming the towns charm and quality of life. The result was a deal whereby Historic Kenmore (the circa 1770s Fredericksburg home of Washingtons sister Elizabeth Washington Lewis and her husband Fielding Lewis), in conjunction with the National Park Service and commonwealth funds, purchased the site. Historic Kenmore became George Washingtons Fredericksburg Foundation and in 2008 The George Washington Foundation. This foundation oversees both sites as well as Augustine Washington&#39;s ironworks at Accokeek (Potomac) Furnace (1726~ 56) in Stafford County, part of the Principio Company.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2000.</p><br>
<p>Extensive archaeological investigations began in 2002 under the direction of David Muraca (formerly of Colonial Williamsburg) and Philip Levy of the University of South Florida. The goal of the excavations is to locate and understand the original Washington farm complex. In 2008, Levy and Muraca announced that one of three sites excavated yielded the original home site, including foundations of a 53 by 37 ft home. The home had suffered a small fire during George Washingtons lifetime. In 2018 a replica of the original home was completed above these foundations and guided tours are offered on a daily basis. Ferry Farm also runs childrens programs and other public events.</p><br>
<p>It is located at 237 Kings Highway (Virginia Route 3), near Fredericksburg. A building associated with George Washingtons surveying work is listed at 712 King&#39;s Highway.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<h3>Wal-Mart controversy</h3><br>
<p>Samuel Warren and Irma Warren bought the land in 1969. The Warrens were interested in historical preservation and kept the property in the family for nearly 30 years but they eventually sought to rezone the land as a B-1 commercial lot. They then reached an agreement with Stafford County, with the county agreeing to rezoning a parcel of the land, and the Warrens agreeing to donate 24 acres surrounding the Colbert house. The sale, however, marked the start of a long controversy between commercial interests and proponents of national heritage. Robert Siegrist entered the controversy and expressed an interest in maintaining the land that was recently donated to Stafford County. Siegrist maintained the property for 4 years until early on the morning of September 26, 1994, when a fire broke out at the Colbert house. Stafford County quickly ended its relationship with Siegrist and looked for alternate applications of the property.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, the Walmart corporation sought the land surrounding the Washington Site, and worked to purchase it. Included in the purchase was a promise that the site heritage would be preserved through a columned plaza with "special tributes to George and the Cherry Tree." However, there was a large opposition including Fredericksburg small business owners, local historical preservationists, and many national organizations such as Daughters of the American Revolution. The conflict came to a head on April 1, 1995, after the review board assigned to the task rejected Walmart&#39;s offer.</p><br>
<h3>Archaeology</h3><br>
<p>The George Washington Foundation purchased the land in 1996 and since 2003 has supported an archeological field school at the site. The summer excavations are led by Philip Levy (associate professor of history at the University of South Florida) and David Muraca (who previously worked at Colonial Williamsburg). Digs are organized through university groups and consist of undergraduate and graduate volunteers. Archeologists and volunteers have found artifacts dating from the prehistoric period through the Civil War and beyond.</p><br>
<h3>The house</h3><br>
<p>In 2006–2008 the archeology team headed by Muraca and Levy, funded by the George Washington Foundation, found the cellar to, and thus the location of George Washingtons boyhood home. Using the remains of the building and the artifacts within, they have dated the feature to the 1740s, the time when the Washingtons lived on the land. In 2015, groundbreaking began on a replica house built above the original foundations using information gleaned from the archaeological remains, contemporary descriptions of the original house, and knowledge of similar houses in Colonial Virginia. The house was built using eighteenth-century building techniques by experts in colonial craftsmanship, and completed and opened to the public in 2018. It is stocked with reproductions of the furniture and objects listed in Augustine Washingtons probate inventory as having been in the house when he died in 1743. Since they are reproductions, tour guides encourage guests to interact with all of the objects in the house, allowing them to sit on the furniture, open cabinets, and handle objects.</p><br>
<h3>Foundation and museum</h3><br>
<p>The George Washington Foundation now owns the land as well as Kenmore, the Fredericksburg home of Washingtons sister Elizabeth (known as "Betty") and her husband Fielding Lewis. The GWF is funded by donors and grants and has been managing the land since the Walmart purchase. In addition to funding, staffing, cataloging, and overseeing the sites excavations there are now plans to recreate the historical landscape and build a new visitor&#39;s center on the site.</p><br>
<h4>Prehistoric</h4><br>
<p>Artifacts found at the Ferry Farm site have dated back to 10,000 B.C. This period of prehistoric artifacts continues on until 1,500 B.C. Artifacts from this period include hunting and gather tools, which prehistoric peoples used to hunt wildlife around and in the Rappahannock River. The land around Ferry Farm was rich in nutrients and populated with multiple animals.</p><br>
<p>"Such diversity in food sources required these groups to expand the types of tools they used."</p><br>
<p>Examples of artifacts that were found include spear points, stone axes, and quartz scrapers, which were used as tools for hunting.</p><br>
<h4>Pre-Colonial life</h4><br>
<p>While evidence is scarce, artifacts have been dated back to 1,500 B.C. until 1,500 A.D. when Woodland Indians inhabited the land around current day Ferry Farm.</p><br>
<h4>Colonial life</h4><br>
<p>Popular artifacts found from the Colonial Period include the ends of 18th century wig hair curlers.</p><br>
<p>" These were associated with maintaining wigs for George Washingtons younger brothers. The fashionable gentlemen of the late 18th century wore a wig- the single most expensive part of the gentry-class mans wardrobe."</p><br>
<h4>Civil War</h4><br>
<p>In 1862 the Civil War arrived at Ferry Farm leaving behind a variety of artifacts throughout the duration of the war. Such as objects from battles including bullets, ink bottles, buttons and medallions from uniforms to name a few.</p><br>
<h2>Ferry Farm in stories and myth</h2><br>
<h3>Cherry tree</h3><br>
<p>Ferry Farm is the setting for some of the best known stories about George Washington, most particularly those brought to the American public by Mason Locke Weems, best known as Parson Weems, in the early 19th century. These include the anecdote, appearing first in the 1806 edition of Weemss Life of Washington, in which a 6-year-old George barked one of his father Augustines favorite English cherry trees with a new hatchet. Upon being confronted by his father, the boy confessed, saying: "I cannot tell a lie; I did it with my little hatchet."</p><br>
<p>George Washingtons step-grandson, George Washington Parke Custis, published a newer version of the story in which George Washington tried to break his mothers new colt (horse). In this story, Washington rode the horse "so hard" that one of the horses blood vessel&#39;s burst, killing the horse. Like the cherry tree story, when confronted George Washington admitted to killing the horse.</p><br>
<p>Both stories celebrate George Washingtons honesty and share a theme of loss, which Washington was painfully familiar with after his fathers death and losing his opportunity to study abroad.</p><br>
<h3>Silver dollar toss</h3><br>
<p>It has also been claimed to be the site where Washington "threw a silver dollar across the Rappahannock River." It is possible to "skip" a coin or flat rock across that area. Regardless, the river was considerably wider during this period than it is today, making the feat that much more difficult. Each year during the celebration of Washingtons birthday, townspeople are invited to attempt to recreate this event. In the summer of 2006, archaeology intern Jim Trueman duplicated Washingtons alleged throw and did it again the following summer to prove the first throw was not a fluke.</p><br>
<p>The City Opera House is located at 106-112 Front Street in Traverse City, Michigan. It was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1971 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1891, entrepreneurs Perry Hannah, Charles Wilhelm, Tony Bartok, and Frank Votruba owned the property where the opera house now stands. They hired architect E. R. Prall of Pontiac, Michigan to design this structure, and builder John Wilhelm to construct it. At the time of construction, it was the first building in Traverse City to use electric lights. The City Opera House provided a 1200-seat performance space for traveling artists as well as a perfect setting for formal balls, such as an Installation Ball held in 1892.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, a local movie house leased the building and shuttered it to eliminate competition. In 1978, work began to raise money for restoration. In 1980, the owners gave the structure to the city, and restoration work began in 1985. In 2005, the bulk of a 30-year and 8.5 million dollar restoration was completed.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The City Opera House is a square, three-story, building constructed of red brick. It measures 110 ft on each side. The ground floor houses commercial tenants; the opera house proper is located on the upper floors. Since completion of the restoration, the City Opera house has seating for 710 people, arches with trompe-l&#39;œil clouds and a dome ornamented with angelic putti, a two-story oriel window, an acoustic stage shell, modern theatre rigging and complete facilities for catered events.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn  is one of the eleven active eating clubs at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn was founded in 1890 and is one of the "Big Four" eating clubs at Princeton (the others are The Ivy Club, University Cottage Club, and Cap and Gown Club), the four oldest and most prestigious on campus. Tiger Inn is the third oldest Princeton Eating Club. Its historic clubhouse is located at 48 Prospect Avenue, Princeton, New Jersey, near the Princeton University campus.</p><br>
<p>Members of "T.I." also frequently refer to the club as "The Glorious Tiger Inn."</p><br>
<h2>The Tiger Inn clubhouse</h2><br>
<p>The Tiger Inn clubhouse is the oldest of the Princeton Eating Club houses. It is both architecturally distinct, built in the Tudor style, and historically notable. "The Clubhouse is designed in the timbered style of the 15th century and modeled especially after an old inn in Chelsea.". The clubhouse was built in 1895 for an original club membership of 30 undergraduates. The clubhouse has been in continuous use since the facility first opened. The architect for the clubhouses original plan was G Howard Chamberlain. According to The Tiger Inns official history, "Princeton myth credits to Howard Crosby Butler, Class of 1892 (a member of Tiger Inn and Princetons first Professor of architectural history)." The clubhouses central hall was filled with massive antique furniture presented to the club by Mrs. Thomas Harrison Garrett (the former Alice Dickerson Whitridge (1851–1920), "the widow of a Princeton trustee and mother of three of Princetons most prominent graduates of the 1890s" Robert Garrett, John W. Garrett, and ???); these furnishings remain in use to this day. The funding for the original clubhouse, the land, and the clubs other furnishings were provided by the club&#39;s membership, although all at the time recognized the extraordinary support and contributions of the Garrett family.</p><br>
<p>Renovations to the clubhouse have continued since it was built in 1895. During 1922–1923 a room was added to the left of the front door and the second floor was remodeled; the second floor alterations were never used for their intended purpose as members quickly converted the new portion of the second floor space to a card room. In the fall of 1926 the clubhouse was substantially improved; during the six weeks of these alterations club members were required to take their meals at the surrounding clubs. By 1928 the kitchen had been moved to the south of the building. The changes to the clubhouse from 1926 to 1928 were well timed as this coincided with an expansion of the membership. The financing of the renovations placed Tiger Inn on the firm financial footing it would need to survive the Great Depression.</p><br>
<p>The distinctive clubhouse has recently undergone renovations, improvements and enlargements as part of its “21st Century Expansion and Renovation Project,” for which the commissioned architect was Connolly Architecture, Inc. The project was completed with the formal dedication of the new club facilities on the weekend of 11-11-11. Funded entirely by the clubs alumni, the expanded facilities include a new dining hall and improvements to the spaces normally reserved for social events. The new facilities provide a more suitable building to serve the clubs Active Membership, now up from 26 to over 150 in any given year, and club alumni exceeding 2000 in 2012. Fundraising for the completed project continues.</p><br>
<h2>Membership</h2><br>
<p>Tiger Inn is a selective club, meaning membership is awarded after successful completion of a process called bicker. During bicker, prospective members interact with current members who then convene to vote on whether the prospective members should "receive a bid," or be invited to join the club.</p><br>
<p>The club has designated its 26 original founding members as "Charter Members:" at the time of the club&#39;s founding, these members were known within the Princeton University community as "The Sour Balls." The Active Membership is that portion of membership that uses the clubhouse on a daily basis and is composed principally of Princeton undergraduates, although graduate students have also been active members from time to time. Alumni Members frequently return to the Tiger Inn. The club also has two honorific categories of membership to recognize and honor those who have had a positive and notable association with the club, whether as members of the Princeton University community or as individuals whose principal affiliation with the Princeton community is their association with the Tiger Inn.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn&#39;s membership was once described by F. Scott Fitzgerald in This Side of Paradise (1920) as "broad-shouldered and athletic, vitalized by an honest elaboration of prep-school standards." In a 1927 essay on Princeton for the magazine College Humor, Fitzgerald elaborated: "Tiger Inn cultivates a bluff simplicity. Its membership is largely athletic and while it pretends to disdain social qualifications it has a sharp exclusiveness of its own."</p><br>
<p>Fitzgeralds comments were written during his time at Princeton University, when the membership of each of the Eating Clubs was male only. Women were not accepted as undergraduates at Princeton until 1969. Debate over co-ed Eating Club membership abounded from 1969 until 1991. In 1979, undergraduate Sally Frank filed suit against then all-male clubs Ivy Club, Cottage Club, and Tiger Inn for gender discrimination. While Cottage chose to coeducate during the intervening years, Ivy Club and Tiger Inn were forced to become co-ed organizations in 1991, after their appeal to the USA Supreme Court regarding Franks lawsuit was denied. The New Jersey Supreme Court had ruled in Frank v. Ivy Club that the failure to open membership to women violated the state&#39;s anti-discrimination statute.</p><br>
<p>In modern times, the membership of The Tiger Inn is distinctly coed, and the clubs membership and leadership, including members of both its Graduate Council and the undergraduate officers have included many notable Princeton alumnae and female students, respectively. In 2015 Grace Larsen was elected as the clubs first female president. That same year Maria Yu was elected as treasurer, and Victoria Hammarskjold was elected as communication chair, thus making it the first time the club&#39;s undergraduate officers were gender-balanced, with three women and three men.</p><br>
<p>The full membership of the club, including all living alumni, have met four times to commemorate anniversaries of Tiger Inn. The highlight of the clubs fiftieth anniversary celebration was the publication of the clubs first official history, written by Charlie Mulduar and released in March 1940, just before Americas involvement in World War II. The clubs seventy-fifth anniversary was held on December 9, 1965, at the Hotel Roosevelt in New York. The celebrations for the 100th anniversary of the club began in 1988 with a small informal meeting of 40 alumni at the Princeton Club of New York who began to plan the centennial celebrations. The centennial celebrations peaked with the club&#39;s Hundredth Anniversary Dinner held on October 20, 1990, at the Hyatt in Princeton, following which many of the alumni insisted on continuing celebrations at the clubhouse. The centennial celebrations were concluded by the subsequent publication of the second club history entitled The Tiger Inn of Princeton, New Jersey, 1890–1997. In February, 2016 The Tiger Inn marked its 125th anniversary with a dinner held at the Westin in Princeton, followed by continued celebrations at the clubhouse.</p><br>
<h3>Notable contributions to sport</h3><br>
<h4>Olympic athletes</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inn members acted to form the first American Olympics team for the first modern Olympic games in Athens in 1896. Most of the first American Olympic team came from Princeton, Harvard University and the Boston Athletic Association. Four Princetonians, including three Tiger Inn members, participated in those games. The TI members earned six medals in total: two gold, three silver medals, and one bronze; the four Princetonians earned 7 medals in total. The three TI members were Robert Garrett, Herb Jamison and Frank Lane; they were joined by Princetonian Al Tyler, who also medalled. These four Princeton athletes&#39; 7 medals helped the 1896 American Olympic team earn 20 medals in total. Team Member Garrett delivered the most unexpected upset of the 1896 Games when he won Gold in the Discus, outperforming his Greek rival to win the most symbolic sport carried over from the ancient Olympics to the modern Olympic games.</p><br>
<p>TI members continued to participate in the Olympics after the 1896 Athens games. Garrett returned to the Olympics for the 1900 Paris games where he won two bronze medals. He was joined in the Paris games by John Cregan who won a silver medal in the 800 meters. John DeWitt competed in the 1904 St. Louis games; he was joined there by A. M. Woods, who earned a silver medal.</p><br>
<p>Pete Raymond rowed in both the 1968 Mexico City and 1972 Munich games; he earned a silver medal in Munich.</p><br>
<p>Most recently, in 2024, current TI member Maia Mei Weintraub competed in the Women&#39;s Team Foil Fencing event for Team USA, where she carried her team to Olympic Gold. The victory marked the first time that the United States has taken gold in a team fencing event.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn members have earned more than 12 Olympic medals. Garrett&#39;s lifetime record of 6 Olympic medals among Princeton athletes continues to stand.</p><br>
<h4>American football</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inn members have been both Princeton football players, and professional football players. The College Football Hall of Fame lists many TI members in its ranks.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn alumni have returned to Princeton to serve as Head Coaches of Princeton&#39;s football program. As college football head coaches, Tiger Inn alumni through the class of 1900 compiled composite career coaching records of 175-31-5. They coached Princeton to at least one national championship. TI members who served as Princeton Football Head Coach include Garrett Cochran, Arthur Hillebrand and Robert Casciola. TI Members have also served as Head Coaches of Football at Annapolis, Berkeley, Bowdoin, Georgetown, and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, among other colleges.</p><br>
<p>Charlie Gogolak and Cosmo Iacavazzi are two prominent TI members who became professional football players.</p><br>
<h4>Other American collegiate sports</h4><br>
<p>Through the club&#39;s history Tiger Inn members have also featured prominently in other collegiate sports in which Princeton competes.</p><br>
<p>In 2012 the Princeton men&#39;s squash team won the National Collegiate Championship powered by the performances of three Tiger Inn members.</p><br>
<h3>Notable community contributions</h3><br>
<h4>Academia</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inn&#39;s sole winner of a Nobel Prize, thus far, is economist Michael Spence, the winner of the 2001 Nobel Prize in Economics together with George Akerlof and Joseph Stiglitz. During his illustrious career Spence has served as dean of the Stanford Graduate School of Business and is presently chairman of the Commission for Growth and Development.</p><br>
<p>Princeton Universitys School of Architecture was founded in 1919 through the efforts of Tiger Inn Charter Member Howard Clark Butler and his fellow faculty members. He became the School of Architectures director in 1920. Professor Butler was only the second Princeton Professor to offer a course related to architecture, following the precedent set by Princeton Professor Marquand.</p><br>
<p>In addition to Spence, Tiger Inn has produced well over 100 members of Phi Beta Kappa. Its members have earned at least three Rhodes, and two Marshall, Scholarships. TI members serve as research scientists at the Bell Labs and NASA and in the research or "Think Tank" roles of such commercial organizations as international financial institutions and the BIG 4 accounting firms, among other organizations.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn alumni have served many universities, including Princeton, as faculty members and as non-faculty instructors and administrators. Spence has served Harvard University, New York University and Stanford University. Butler served Princeton as did noted philologist W K. Prentice. Chauncey Loomis was a Dartmouth professor, and from there, led 5 Arctic expeditions. James Harland was a professor of classics at University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. John Fine joined the Princeton faculty in 1940 from Yale as a professor of Classics and retired in 1972. Richard H Williams is a professor of history at Southern Methodist University. Samuel Armistead is a professor of Spanish language and literature at UC Davis.</p><br>
<p>Sean Smith is a professor of computer science at Dartmouth. Joseph Haid is a professor at Wisconsin Polytechnique Institute.</p><br>
<p>Will Garwood continues to serve Princeton as vice chairman of advisory board to the James Madison Program On June 12, 2012, Robert J Hugin was elected a Charter Trustee of Princeton University</p><br>
<h4>Cultural contributions</h4><br>
<p>Tiger Inns members have been active in literature and the arts. Jesse Williams won the first Pulitzer Prize in Drama. Frank Taplin was president of the Metropolitan Opera in New York, the Cleveland Orchestra, and the Cleveland Institute of Music. Thomas Hoving was the director of New Yorks Metropolitan Museum of Art. And Barry S Friedberg is the chairman emeritus of the New York City Ballet.</p><br>
<p>Jesse Williams, the author of Why Marry?, has been joined by several other Tiger Inn members as accomplished authors. William Edwards&#39; book Football Days remains the definitive account of American Football in the 19th century. Classics Professor John Fine wrote several books, including The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History. Samuel Armistead wrote Spanish Tradition in Louisiana, which remains the definitive study on the use of the Spanish language in that state. H K Twichell wrote Regeneration in the Ruhr: The Unknown Story of a Decisive Answer to Communism in Postwar Europe. Henry Owsley is co-author of the leading book in his field, Distressed Investment Banking: To the Abyss and Back.</p><br>
<p>Chauncey Loomis remains Tiger Inn&#39;s only Arctic explorer.</p><br>
<h4>Military</h4><br>
<p>Several members of the Tiger Inn have served the United States as uniformed officers of its Armed Forces. TI was founded just over 20 years after the end of the Civil War. TI members have served in the Spanish–American War, World War I, World War II, the Korean war, the Vietnam war, Desert Storm and the more recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, among other armed conflicts.</p><br>
<p>TI Members who served in World War I include Brigadier General Coulter, Medal of Honor recipient Gordon Johnston, and decorated World War I Flying Ace, "Ace" Vaughn.</p><br>
<p>Tiger Inn lists well over 30 members who gave their lives in the service of their country. The memory of many of these TI alums are honored through their portraits kept at the clubhouse, mainly in the upstairs Library.</p><br>
<h4>Elected and appointed offices</h4><br>
<p>TI members have also served their communities through various positions at the Federal, State and local levels. Tiger Inn members have served as United States Senator and United States Ambassador at the federal level, Speaker of the House in New Jersey at the state level, and Deputy Mayor of New York City at the local level. Senator John Danforth ranks as the senior-most elected politician as an Active Member of the club while a Princeton undergraduate. United States President Grover Cleveland accepted an Honorary Membership in Tiger Inn, making him the senior-most elected politician to have joined the club in this membership category.</p><br>
<p>TI alum Louis Le Guyader is among the first candidates ever to run for the new elective office of DEPUTE to the French National Assembly from his home in New York - his new electoral district was created under a change to the French Constitution in 2008 and is meant to represent French Citizens living in the United States and Canada. As such he is the first TI member ever to seek elective office abroad.</p><br>
<h4>Commerce</h4><br>
<p>Arthur M Wood was chairman and C.E.O. of Sears and credited with its turnaround in the 1960s. He was also responsible for the building of Sears Tower in Chicago, whose last steel beam bears his signature. George H Love led the reorganizations and turnarounds at two major corporations, the Consolidation Coal Company and The Chrysler Corporation, where he was chairman. Barry S Friedberg served as head of investment banking at Merrill Lynch, before its merger with Bank of America; under his leadership Merrill climbed to the top of the industry league tables in every category he managed.</p><br>
<p>Rudolph J. Schaefer ran his familys highly acclaimed Brooklyn brewery, the F & M Schaefer Brewing Company of Brooklyn, New York. His product, Schaefer Beer, was the worlds best selling beer until the mid-1970s.</p><br>
<p>Robert Hugin is chairman and president of Celgene, the New Jersey pharmaceutical company. Michael Novogratz is president of the Fortress Investment Group</p><br>
<p>N.J. Nicholas Jr was president of HBO in its earliest days, president of Time Inc in 1986 and co-ceo of Time Warner in 1990. He served the GHW Bush administration on the PCEQ (presidential commission on environmental quality) and on the advisory board to the US Trade Representative. After retiring from Time Warner in 1992, he served for 15 years as a trustee of Environmental Defense Fund, including seven years as board chair. He also served as advisory board chair of the Columbia School of Journalism.</p><br>
<h2>Controversies</h2><br>
<p>In 2014, two club officers were removed from their positions after sending emails ridiculing women. One of the emails included a sexually explicit photograph showing a woman, denoted as an Asian chick,engaged in a sexual act. In the other email the club&#39;s treasurer wrote about the alumna whose lawsuit forced the club to admit women: “Ever wonder who we have to thank (blame) for gender equality. Looking for someone to blame for the influx of girls? Come tomorrow and help boo Sally Frank.”</p><br>
<h2>Notable members</h2><br>
<p>Gerardo "Gerry" Angulo - publisher of the only English-language daily newspaper in Puerto Rico, The San Juan Star</p><br>
<p>Samuel G. Armistead - Professor Emeritus of Spanish Language and History, UC Davis.</p><br>
<p>James T. Aubrey - television and film executive</p><br>
<p>Ralph Bard - Under Secretary of the Navy and Assistant Secretary of the Navy during World War II, Roosevelt Administration</p><br>
<p>Dan M. Berkovitz - General Counsel of the CFTC, Obama Administration</p><br>
<p>Walter C. Booth - known as "Bummy," an American football coach serving as the head football coach at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (the Huskers), compiling a career record of 46-8-1.</p><br>
<p>R. Manning Brown Jr. - former chairman of the board of New York Life Insurance Co. and former chairman of Princeton University&#39;s Board of Trustees</p><br>
<p>Howard Crosby Butler - Charter Member, one of the founders of Princeton&#39;s School of Architecture, and its director from 1920</p><br>
<p>Robert Casciola - head football coach at Princeton from 1973 to 1977.</p><br>
<p>Grover Cleveland - Honorary Member, President of the United States.</p><br>
<p>Garrett Cochran - head football coach at the University of California, Berkeley (1898–99), the United States Naval Academy (1900) and Princeton (1902), with a career coaching record of 29–5–3.</p><br>
<p>Richard Coulter Jr. - Charter Member, Brigadier General in the USA Army in WWI; professional football player</p><br>
<p>John F. Cregan - Olympic athlete; participated in the 1900 Olympic games earning a silver medal</p><br>
<p>John Danforth - former United States Senator, Missouri; ordained priest in the Episcopal Church</p><br>
<p>John R. DeWitt - Olympic athlete, St Louis Games of 1904; College Football Hall of Fame</p><br>
<p>Selden Edwards - best-selling novelist, author of The Little Book and The Lost Prince, educator, and secretary of the Princeton class of &#39;63</p><br>
<p>William Hanford Edwards - author of Football Days, the definitive work on American Football in the 19th century; famous for saving the life of N.Y. Mayor William Gaynor by tackling his assailant.</p><br>
<p>Max Farrand - Charter Member, professor, first director of the Huntington Library, past president of the American Historical Society</p><br>
<p>John V. A. Fine - Classics Professor at Princeton, noted author in Greek history</p><br>
<p>Barry S. Friedberg - former Executive Vice President of Merrill Lynch, and Head of Investment Banking, Chairman Emeritus of the New York City Ballet</p><br>
<p>Robert Garrett - the first modern Olympic champion in the discus; organized the 4 Princetonians who competed in the 1896 Athens games; won two golds and two silvers in Athens, 1896, and two bronzes in Paris, 1900.</p><br>
<p>Will Garwood - President of Cypress Asset Management and, at Princeton, vice chairman of the advisory board of the James Madison Program.</p><br>
<p>Charlie Gogolak - football placekicker noted for his innovations; initially with the Washington Redskins and then the New England Patriots</p><br>
<p>Hy Gunning - Associate Member, played professional baseball with the Boston Red Sox; he was noted for batting left-handed and throwing right-handed.</p><br>
<p>J. P. Harland - Professor of Classics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill</p><br>
<p>John Grier Hibben - honorary member; president of Princeton, 1920–32; he opposed President Wilson&#39;s plans to replace the Eating Clubs with a system of residential quadrangles.</p><br>
<p>Arthur Hillebrand - head football coach at Princeton, 1903–05, his record was 27–4 and the team out-scored opponents 669–85; the 1903 team was 11–0 and was national champion.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hoving – former director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art</p><br>
<p>Robert J. Hugin - chairman and President of Celgene, Inc. elected Charter Trustee of Princeton in June 2012.</p><br>
<p>Cosmo Iacavazzi - professional football player, a member of the New York Jets; inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.</p><br>
<p>Herbert Jamison - member of the first USA Olympic Team at the first modern Olympic games in Athens, where he won a silver medal.</p><br>
<p>Gordon Johnston - Colonel, USA Army, recipient of the Medal of Honor, the highest military award of the USA head coach of the University of North Carolina (the Tar Heels) football team in 1896.</p><br>
<p>Philip King - American football player, notable as a college football coach, especially at Georgetown University, compiling a career record of 73-14-1.</p><br>
<p>Howard Krongard - known as "Cookie;" head of the Office of the inspector general of the Department of State; Bush "43" Administration.</p><br>
<p>Frank A. Lane - member of the first USA Olympic Team in Athens, 1896; technically, the first American to compete in the modern Olympiad; bronze medal winner</p><br>
<p>Louis Le Guyader - the first TI member to seek elective office outside the United States in a campaign to serve as a Depute in the French National Assembly in 2012</p><br>
<p>Chauncey C. Loomis - famous Arctic explorer who led 5 expeditions to the Arctic, and Dartmouth professor.</p><br>
<p>Donald Lourie - Under Secretary of State for Administration, Eisenhower Administration; declined a pro football career with the Cleveland Browns.</p><br>
<p>Roscoe Parke McClave - Head Football Coach, Bowdoin College; twice Speaker of the House, General Assembly of New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Albert G. Milbank - founding partner of the law firm Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy</p><br>
<p>Joshua Miller - founder of Resilient Youth Foundation as a teen; founder of startup atroundtable.com which is being referred to as "the next facebook for internet conversations among experts"</p><br>
<p>Roland S. Morris - American Ambassador to Japan, 1917–20.</p><br>
<p>N. J. Nicholas Jr - President of HBO in its earliest days, President of Time Inc in 1986 and co-ceo of Time Warner in 1990</p><br>
<p>Michael Novogratz – president of the Fortress Investment Group</p><br>
<p>Henry Furlow Owsley III - Wall Street financier, noted as co-author of the leading book in his field, Distressed Investment Banking: To the Abyss and Back and in 2014, "Equity Holders Under Siege: Strategies and Tactics for Distressed Businesses," Beard Books LLC</p><br>
<p>W. K. Prentice - Princeton Professor, noted philologist.</p><br>
<p>Marc Rayman - Project Manager of Deep Space 1, NASA</p><br>
<p>Pete Raymond - two time Olympic oarsman, won the silver medal in Munich in 1972; "a god among men."</p><br>
<p>Wayne Rogers - actor, "Trapper McIntyre" for three seasons on "M.A.S.H."</p><br>
<p>Rudolf J. Schaefer - yachtsman and brewer, ran the F & M Schaefer Brewing Company of Brooklyn, New York.</p><br>
<p>Mawell "Max" Shaw - founder of Shawskaboy inc. and the Face Morpher and Pro Interval Timer iPhone Apps.</p><br>
<p>Michael Spence - a Nobel Prize winner in Economics; Rhodes Scholar; former dean of the Stanford Graduate School of Business.</p><br>
<p>Robert "Huck" Alston Stevenson - Charter Member, second headmaster of the Allen-Stevenson School the private elementary school in New York City, founded by his father</p><br>
<p>Frank E Taplin Jr. - a Rhodes Scholar; president of the Metropolitan Opera</p><br>
<p>H. K. Twitchell - Executive director of Moral Re-Armament, an international religious movement founded in 1938 in London, where it was founded to reshape the world through absolute morality; author of "Regeneration in the Ruhr: The Unknown Story of a Decisive Answer to Communism in Postwar Europe," Princeton University Press</p><br>
<p>George Augustus Vaughn, Jr. - known as "Ace," a World War I Flying Ace: officially credited with downing 12 enemy planes and one balloon</p><br>
<p>Jesse Lynch Williams - Charter Member, prize winning author and dramatist, won the first Pulitzer Prize in drama in 1918 for the play Why Marry?</p><br>
<p>A. M. Woods - lacrosse player and Olympic Athlete, 1904 games, where he earned a silver medal.</p><br>
<p>John E. Zuccotti - former First Deputy Mayor of New York City</p><br>
<p>Zack Wall - actor, "The Village" (2004), "The Great New Wonderful" (2005), "Coda" (2014), and "SnapChat Guy" (2016).</p><br>
<p>Saugus Iron Works National Historic Site is a National Historic Site about 10 miles  northeast of Downtown Boston in Saugus, Massachusetts. It is the site of the first integrated ironworks in North America, founded by John Winthrop the Younger and in operation between 1646 and approximately 1670. It includes the reconstructed blast furnace, forge, rolling mill, shear, slitter and a quarter-ton trip hammer.</p><br>
<p>The facility is powered by seven large waterwheels, some of which are rigged to work in tandem with huge wooden gears connecting them. It has a wharf to load the iron onto ocean-going vessels, as well as a large, restored 17th-century house.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the 17th century, iron was used to manufacture a number of indispensable goods, including nails, horseshoes, cookware, tools, and weapons. The production of iron required a complex manufacturing process that could only be done by an industrial enterprise. This process was not available in North America during the early years of English colonization, which meant that all iron goods had to be imported. As it took at least two months to sail to the nearest foundry, iron goods were very expensive.</p><br>
<p>Winthrop believed that because the colonies had a cheap and abundant supply of raw materials, an iron works in Massachusetts could produce goods that could be sold profitably in the New England and Chesapeake Colonies as well as in England itself. In 1641, Winthrop sailed to England to get the capital he needed to fund the enterprise. Winthrop selected a site in Braintree, Massachusetts (now part of present-day Quincy, Massachusetts) as the location of the first Iron Works. Construction began in 1644 and was completed in 1645. On October 15, 1645, Winthrop secured the Undertakers an exemption from taxes and a 21-year monopoly on iron production from the Massachusetts General Court. The Braintree Iron Works, however, was unsuccessful due to a lack of iron ore in the area and an inadequate supply of water to power the machinery.</p><br>
<p>In 1645, the Undertakers wrote to Winthrop informing him that Richard Leader, a merchant from Salehurst who was familiar with the iron making process, would replace him as manager of the Iron Works. After arriving in Massachusetts, Leader reviewed the previous site survey and looked into some other locations. He selected a location in Lynn, Massachusetts (now part of present-day Saugus) on the Saugus River. The river was navigable for shallow draft vessels and could be dammed to power machinery. The surrounding forests could be used to make charcoal. Bog ore could be mined from nearby ponds, swamps, riverbeds, and bogs. Limestone, which was normally used for flux, was not available, but through trial and error it was found that gabbro, which could be mined in nearby Nahant, would work as a flux.</p><br>
<p>The new iron works, which was called Hammersmith, began operations in 1646. It consisted of a blast furnace for producing pig iron and gray iron (the later of which was poured into molds to make firebacks, pots, pans, kettles, and skillets), a forge where pig iron was refined into wrought iron and a 500-pound hammer was used to make merchant bars, which were sold to blacksmiths for manufacture into finished products, and a rolling and slitting mill where flat stock that could be used to manufacture nails, bolts, horse shoes, wagon tires, axes, saw blades, and other implements was produced. At the time, it was one of the most technologically advanced iron works in the world. Once functioning, the Iron Works ran for thirty weeks of the year and produced one ton of cast iron a day.</p><br>
<p>Skilled workers were brought over from England to ply their trade at the iron works. These emigrants did not fit in with the local Puritan society and often ran afoul of its laws. Many ironworkers were arrested for crimes such as drunkenness, adultery, gambling, fighting, cursing, not attending church, and wearing fine clothes. The less experienced local men who worked at the Iron Works met with frequent and sometimes fatal accidents. The Scots mostly worked as unskilled laborers, performing tasks like chopping wood. Some learned skills such as making charcoal, blacksmithing and carpentry. Most Scots were able to gain their freedom after seven years and afterwards they remained in Massachusetts or moved to Maine, where they started families and assimilated into Puritan society.</p><br>
<p>In 1650, Leader, who had encountered difficulties with the Undertakers, left the Iron Works to go into the sawmill business. John Gifford and William Aubrey assumed management of the Iron Works, with Gifford serving as ironmaster and Aubrey doing the accounting.</p><br>
<p>Although the Iron Works produced a respectable quantity of iron, due to the high cost of labor, financial mismanagement which may have included embezzlement, and a number of lawsuits, it seldom operated at a profit.</p><br>
<h2>Site reconstruction and restoration</h2><br>
<p>After the iron works closed, the site fell into disuse and became hidden by underbrush. In 1898, the Lynn Historical Society erected a historical marker near the site which read "The First Iron Works. The first successful iron works in this country established here. Foundry erected in 1643. Joseph Jenckes built a forge here in 1647 and in 1652 made the dies for the first silver money coined in New England. In 1654 he made the first fire engine in America." Eventually, the plaque too became obscured by the underbrush and remained camouflaged until it was discovered during the restoration of the Iron Works.</p><br>
<p>In 1915, antiquarian Wallace Nutting purchased the Appleton-Taylor-Mansfield House, a 1680s farmhouse near the iron works site which was believed to be the former home of the ironmaster of the Saugus Iron Works. He renamed the home Broadhearth and undertook an extensive, albeit embellished, restoration of the home. Nutting used Broadhearth to showcase his collection of antiques, photographs, and reproduction furniture. In 1917 he added a blacksmiths shop to the property and hired a blacksmith to manufacture and sell reproductions of early ironwork. In 1920, Nutting, who was having financial troubles, sold the house to Boston antiques dealer Charles L. Cooney. After Cooneys death, his widow sold it to another Boston antiques dealer, Philip Rosenberg. Upon purchasing property, Rosenberg promised Louise Hawkes of the Parson Roby Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution that he would only sell the house to the DAR or the Town of Saugus. In 1938, the DAR purchased a piece of the former Iron Works property out of foreclosure for $50. In 1941, Rosenberg offered to sell the house to Saugus and the DAR, however neither could meet his asking price. Instead he reached an agreement with the Alumni Association of the Henry Ford Trade School, which intended on moving the building to Henry Fords Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. News of the impending move caused outrage amongst Saugus residents and preservationists who, after extensive discussions, convinced Henry Ford not to acquire the building. In exchange, Ford wanted the Alumni Association reimbursed what it spent on the property. Fundraising efforts in Saugus were disappointing, so William Sumner Appleton, President of the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, proposed splitting the cost between the state, town, and the public. When it became clear that this plan would not work, Appleton created a nonprofit, called the First Iron Works Association, to purchase and maintain the property. In 1943 the First Iron Works Association (FIWA) purchased the farmhouse as well as the DARs piece of the former Iron Works property.</p><br>
<p>Louise E. du Pont Crowninshield, one of the FIWAs directors, approached Quincy Bent, a retired executive of Bethlehem Steel residing in Gloucester, Massachusetts, for money. Although Bent was unimpressed by the house, he was interested in the propertys slag pile, which indicated that the site could contain the remains of an iron works. Bent eventually convinced the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) to fund the restoration of the Iron Works.</p><br>
<p>In September 1948, FIWA president J. Sanger Attwill approached archaeologist Roland W. Robbins who had discovered the site of Henry David Thoreaus cabin on Walden Pond about trying to find the site of the Iron Works. Robbins was interested in the idea of digging at a site that was over three hundred years old, the challenge of working on a site where there little information, including no plans or sketches, and the opportunity to work at what may have been the first iron-manufacturing plant in the American colonies. Robbins excavations uncovered the major manufacturing units of the Iron Works, including the foundations of buildings, remains of the blast furnace, holding ponds, and canal, a 500-pound hammer used in the forge, and a waterwheel that powered the bellows for the blast furnace, along with its wheel pit. The wheel was saved by biologists from Harvard University, who developed a process to preserve it. In total, more than 5,000 artifacts were found. Robbins was aided by a historical researcher (Professor E. Neal Hartley of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology), metallurgic experts, specialists from Harvard Universitys biological laboratory and botanical museum, and a professional photographer. He also received assistance from collectors and experts, including Smithsonian curator C. Malcolm Watkins, MIT professor Herbert H. Uhlig, and Harvard professor Elso Barghoorn. Robbins abruptly left the Iron Works in 1953. Robbins departure came not long after a dispute with Bent, who wanted Robbins to give tours of the excavation site on weekends in addition to his other duties. According to archaeologist and author Donald W. Linebaugh, it was also due in part because of the decision of the FIWA to base the reconstruction of the Iron Works primarily on documentary evidence instead of archaeological evidence. Robbins also clashed with the projects architects, thinking them to be ignorant about and uninterested in archeological data.</p><br>
<p>The Boston architecture firm of Perry, Shaw & Hepburn, Kehoe & Dean, which was responsible for the restoration of Colonial Williamsburg, was hired to reconstruct the Iron Works. The reconstruction was based on archeological evidence and historical documents, as well as partially on conjecture. The Saugus Iron Works was opened on September 18, 1954, the first day of Saugus’ three-day celebration of the town&#39;s 325th anniversary. Benjamin Franklin Fairless, chairman of USA Steel, served as master of ceremonies at the dedication. Also participating in the ceremony were Senator Leverett Saltonstall, Governor Christian Herter, First Iron Works Association President J. Sanger Attwill, and Inland Steel Company chairman Edward L. Ryerson.</p><br>
<h2>Becoming a National Park</h2><br>
<p>After it opened to the public, Saugus Iron Works operated as a private museum run by the First Iron Works Association and funded by the American Iron and Steel Institute. In 1961, the AISI announced that it would no longer pay its annual maintenance subsidy, which left the future of the site uncertain. On April 5, 1968, the Saugus Iron Works was added to the National Park Service system and renamed the Saugus Iron Works National Historic Site. The park is open seasonally, spring through fall.</p><br>
<p>Grand Portage National Monument is a United States National Monument located on the north shore of Lake Superior in northeastern Minnesota that preserves a vital center of fur trade activity and Anishinaabeg Ojibwe heritage. The area became one of the British Empire&#39;s four main fur trading centers in North America, along with Fort Niagara, Fort Detroit, and Michilimackinac.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Portage is an 8.5 mi (2720 rod) footpath which bypasses a set of waterfalls and rapids on the last 20 mi of the Pigeon River before it flows into Lake Superior. This path is part of the historic trade route of the French-Canadian voyageurs and coureur des bois between their wintering grounds and their depots to the east.</p><br>
<p>Composed of the Pigeon River and other strategic interior streams, lakes, and portages, this route was of enormous importance in pre-industrial times. It provided quick water access from Canadas settled areas and Atlantic ports to the fur-rich Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory. Some 50 mi upstream from Lake Superior, this trade route crosses the Height of Land Portage, on the Northern continental divide, and connects South Lake in the Pigeon River/Great Lakes watershed with North Lake of the Rainy River watershed. Grand Portage therefore was an essential link between the drainage basin of the Nelson River to Hudson Bay and that of the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As early as 2,000 years ago, Native American Nations probably used Gichi-onigaming, or "the Great Carrying Place", to travel from summer homes on Lake Superior to winter hunting grounds in the interior of Minnesota and Ontario. In 1729 Cree guide Auchagah drew a map for Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, one of the early French fur traders, showing how to reach the "western sea" of Lake Winnipeg. In time, Grand Portage became the gateway into rich northern fur-bearing country, where it connected remote interior outposts to lucrative international markets.</p><br>
<p>The Grand Portage trail is an 8.5 mi trail connecting Grand Portage with Fort Charlotte on the Pigeon River. Voyageurs from the Rupert&#39;s Land would carry their furs by canoe to Fort Charlotte, and portage the bundles of fur to Grand Portage. There they met traders from Montreal, and exchanged the furs for trade goods and supplies. Each canoe "brigade" then returned to its starting place. The fur traders built Fort Charlotte as a trading fort at Grand Portage. There they built the Grand Hall in the French colonial style, which housed their meetings, a general store, and other facilities.</p><br>
<p>British operations in Grand Portage came under pressure after the signing of the Jay Treaty in 1795, the finalization of western portion of the USA/Canada border in 1818, and gradual settlement of the Minnesota Territory by USA settlers. In mid-July 1802, partners of the North West Company, the most successful fur trade company in North America, met in their Grand Hall at Grand Portage. They voted to move their summer headquarters from the protected shores of Lake Superiors Grand Portage Bay 50 mi north to the mouth of the Kaministiquia River. Almost from the time the British NorWesters had organized at Grand Portage in the mid-1780s, an emerging United States wanted them to stop competing with Americans in this territory.</p><br>
<p>The July vote meant that the North West Company would tear down its 18 buildings and transport the materials north in company schooners for use in constructing the planned new Fort William, far from USA soil. The buildings were constructed from native squared spruce, pine and birch and were surrounded by more than 2,000 cedar pickets.</p><br>
<p>In 1854 the Ojibwe signed a treaty with the USA establishing Grand Portage as part of their reservation. A school was established to educate the tribe members and a post office was created in 1856. In 1887 the government chose to abolish the reservation, opening it to general settlement.</p><br>
<p>In 1951 the property was designated as the Grand Portage National Historic Site and opened for visitors. In 1958, it was designated a National Monument. The portage trail has also been separately designated a Minnesota State Historic Site. The monument&#39;s 710 acre lie entirely within the boundaries of the Grand Portage Indian Reservation. The depot was reconstructed to allow celebration of the fur trade and Ojibwe lifeways. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions and events</h2><br>
<p>The portage trail exists in much the same location and condition as in historic times. Visitors can hike 8.5 mi from Lake Superior to the Pigeon River.</p><br>
<p>Volunteers and park staff at the monument dress in period attire. They staff the Kitchen, Great Hall, Canoe Warehouse, Ojibwe Village and Voyageur Encampment in and around the Stockade, and explain and interpret what life was like at the trading post at the turn of the 18th century. During the second weekend of August, the Grand Portage National Monument hosts a rendezvous re-enactment. At the same time, the Grand Portage Indian Reservation holds a pow wow, which attracts many Native American visitors. The Rendezvous and Pow Wow coincide with the Perseid meteor shower.</p><br>
<p>The four corner rooms off of the Great Hall are each decorated to represent a different aspect of the fur trade, including a shareholders bedroom, a trading post with examples of furs and goods that would have been exchanged, a London streetscape with finished goods made from the furs that came through Grand Portage, and a hatters shop showing the steps of turning beaver pelts into fine felt hats.</p><br>
<h2>Grand Portage National Monument Heritage Center</h2><br>
<p>Opened in 2007, the Grand Portage National Monument Heritage Center features exhibit galleries about Ojibwe culture and the fur trade, a bookstore, multi-media programs, park offices, archives and a classroom. The center is a collaboration between the National Park Service and the Grand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa. It overlooks the reconstructed fur trading post.</p><br>
<h2>Grand Portage</h2><br>
<h3>Voyageur route</h3><br>
<p>This section covers the voyageur route from Grand Portage westward to the juncture of the route from Fort William at Lac La Croix. The Pigeon River is about 3 mi directly north of the reconstructed fort. The Pigeon flows basically east and enters Lake Superior at a bay about 5 mi east northeast. The portage trail meets the Pigeon about 9 mi northwest at the former Fort Charlotte. The portage existed to bypass the river east of Fort Charlotte. From Fort Charlotte the canoe route then went west up the Pigeon past the mouth of the Arrow River to the east-west Mountain Lake. The old Native American route went north, with a drop of 125 ft, to the east-west Arrow Lake. The voyageurs, with their heavy freight canoes, cut a new route that ran west over the Petit Neuf or Watape Portage to Watape Lake which is in the Arrow River drainage. Then through the Petit Detroit to Rove Lake and the Grand Neuf or Long Portage to Rose Lake at the west end of Arrow Lake. From Rose Lake up the Arrow to South Lake. From South Lake north over the 700-yard Height of Land Portage to North Lake whose waters flow west to Lake Winnipeg. From here the route went west down through several rivers and numerous lakes to Lac La Croix where the route from Fort William came in. Lac La Croix is about 100 mi west of Grand Portage and about 66 mi west of Height of Land Portage.</p><br>
<h3>Trail today</h3><br>
<p>The Grand Portage was developed in order to avoid numerous short portages. Beginning at the stockade on Grand Portage Bay of Lake Superior, the 8.5 mi trail leads westward into the wilderness to a mid-point on the Pigeon River, bypassing numerous rapids and a variety of waterfalls. (The most notable are Middle Falls and Pigeon Falls. Both are part of the Grand Portage State Park and are within the Rove Formation. Middle Falls is most easily seen from Pigeon River Provincial Park on the Canadian side of the border.)</p><br>
<p>The portage begins on Lake Superior, elevation 600 ft, rising as it moves westward through two notches in the Sawtooth Mountain range. It briefly levels off around 1,000 ft after 2.6 mi. Another 1.5 mi you reach the inland county highway. From here, the trail is more level, rising to 1,300 ft, the highest location on the trail, before dropping back to 1,260 ft at Fort Charlotte on the Pigeon River. The trail&#39;s high point is the head of a drainage flowing to the Pigeon River at Fort Charlotte. The headwaters has become a large beaver pond. The dam is located along the trail route and has a boardwalk atop it, added for modern visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Archeology</h2><br>
<p>Almost all the information known about the physical layout of Grand Portage National Monument comes from archeological studies.</p><br>
<p>Cooper, David J., Of Sextants and Satellites: David Thompson and the Grand Portage GIS Study CRLS Colloquium, Kenora, Ontario, Canada, 2004.</p><br>
<p>Hamilton, Scott, Graham, James, Norris, Dave, "If These Walls Could Speak:" Using GIS to Explore the Fort at Grand Portage National Monument, Department of Anthropology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay Ontario, Canada, 2004.</p><br>
<p>Birk, Douglas A., Archeologist/Historian, Grand Portage National Monument Maintenance Area Preliminary Survey, February 2006.</p><br>
<p>Clark, Caven, Ph.D., Late Prehistoric Cultural Affiliation Study, Grand Portage National Monument, Prepared by Archeological Consulting Services, Ltd., Tempe, Arizona, November 9, 1999</p><br>
<p>Woolworth, Alan R., An Historical Study of the Grand Portage, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1993</p><br>
<p>Woolworth, Alan. Archaeological Excavations at the North West Company&#39;s Depot, Grand Portage, Minnesota in 1970–1971 (1975)</p><br>
<p>Woolworth, Alan. Archaeological Excavations at Grand Portage National Monument: 1963–1964 Field Season (1969)</p><br>
<p>Woolworth, Alan. Archaeological Excavations at Grand Portage National Monument: 1962 Field Season (1968)</p><br>
<p>Woolworth, Alan. Archaeological Excavations at the North West Company&#39;s Fur Trade Post, Grand Portage, Minnesota, in 1936–1937 (1963)</p><br>
<h2>Route west</h2><br>
<p>John McDonell, a clerk for the North West Company, identified the routes between Grand Portage and Rainy Lake in the 1790s. Henry Hind in 1860 traced the route and provided more details than provided by McDonell.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park is a designated USA historic park preserving two separate farm sites in LaRue County, Kentucky, where Abraham Lincoln was born and lived early in his childhood. He was born at the Sinking Spring site south of Hodgenville and remained there until the family moved to the Knob Creek Farm northeast of Hodgenville when he was two years old, living there until he was seven years of age. The park&#39;s visitor center is located at the Sinking Spring site.</p><br>
<h2>Sinking Spring</h2><br>
<p>In the late fall of 1808, Thomas and Nancy Lincoln settled on Sinking Spring Farm. Two months later on February 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln was born there in a one-room log cabin. Today this site bears the address of 2995 Lincoln Farm Road, Hodgenville, Kentucky. A cabin, symbolic of the one in which Lincoln was born, is preserved within a 1911 neoclassical memorial building at the site. On the site is a Visitor Center and the First Lincoln Memorial.</p><br>
<h3>Memorial Building</h3><br>
<p>A Beaux-Arts neo-classical Memorial Building was designed by John Russell Pope for the birthplace site. On February 12, 1909, the centennial of Abraham Lincoln&#39;s birth, the cornerstone was laid by President Theodore Roosevelt and the building was dedicated on November 9, 1911, by President William Howard Taft. Almost a hundred years after Thomas Lincoln moved from Sinking Spring Farm, a similar log cabin was placed inside the Memorial Building. The Memorial Building features 16 windows, 16 rosettes on the ceiling, and 16 fence poles, representing Lincoln being the 16th president. The 56 steps leading up to the building entrance represent his age at his death.</p><br>
<h3>The log cabin</h3><br>
<p>The original log cabin that Lincoln was reputed to have been born in was dismantled sometime before 1865. Local tradition held that some of the logs from the cabin were used in construction of a nearby house. New York businessman Alfred W. Dennett purchased the Lincoln farm in November 1894 and used the logs from this house to construct a cabin similar in appearance to the original cabin where Lincoln was born. Soon the cabin was dismantled and re-erected for exhibition in many cities. Eventually the logs for this cabin, along with logs incorrectly reputed to have belonged to Jefferson Daviss birthplace and possibly a third cabin, were purchased by the Lincoln Farm Association (LFA), which believed they had acquired only Lincoln logs. When workers tried to reconstruct the cabin, they discovered the problem. The LFA bought a one-room cabin similar to the one reconstructed by Dennett. When the last rebuilt cabin was placed in the Memorial Building, its size made visitor circulation difficult. The LFA reduced the cabins size from 16-by-18 feet to 12-by-17 feet.</p><br>
<p>The Symbolic Birth Cabin represents the one Abraham Lincoln was born in on February 12, 1809. While the original was likely lost to time, the logs in this cabins date to mostly the 1840s and depicts a typical cabin of the mid 19th century, and had been lived in.</p><br>
<h2>Knob Creek</h2><br>
<p>Lincoln lived at Sinking Spring until he was two years old, before moving with his family to another farm a few miles to the northeast along Knob Creek, near present-day USA Highway 31E, where he lived until the age of seven in 1816.</p><br>
<p>The total acreage of Knob Creek Farm is 228 acre, of which the Lincolns lived on 30 acre. Lincolns father, Thomas Lincoln, leased the land by the Old Cumberland Trail (now USA 31E) in hopes of regaining the Sinking Spring Farm, where Lincoln was born. At the Knob Creek home, Lincolns brother, Thomas, was born and died. Lincoln himself almost died at the farm as well, nearly drowning in the nearby creek until neighbor and friend Austin Gollaher extended a branch to rescue him from the swollen waters. In December 1816, when Lincoln was almost eight years old, he moved with his family to a homestead in Indiana, which is now preserved as the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial.</p><br>
<p>The cabin the Lincolns lived in was later moved and re-purposed by Austin Gollaher. Gollaher took down the old home and used the logs to build a horse stable about a mile down the road. Years later, the stable was washed away by a flood.</p><br>
<p>The two historical buildings at the location are the Lincoln Tavern and the Gollaher Cabin. The Tavern was built in 1933 at the cost of $4,200; the 1.5 floor structure was constructed of logs and concrete in an asymmetrical plan. The Gollaher Cabin was likely built around the year 1800, and moved to its present location to reflect what the Lincoln cabin would look like. It is thought to be the cabin Austin Gollahers family lived in during Lincolns stay at Knob Creek Farm. The tavern was built to cash in on the booming tourist trade that came to LaRue County to see sites connected with Lincoln, much as the Nancy Lincoln Inn was. It was originally a dance hall that served liquor, but when LaRue County became "dry" in 1942, it was converted to a museum and gift shop, as it remained until it was closed in 1998. During the 1980s, when it was privately owned 20,000 annually visited the complex.</p><br>
<p>The farm was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 16, 1988, due to its role in tourism in LaRue County, Kentucky, and for its connections with Abraham Lincoln. More detail on the history and specifics of the site are covered in a 2006 NPS report.</p><br>
<p>The Knob Creek site was added to the National park in November 2001 after the Larue County Fiscal Court purchased it from private owners through the Office of Kentucky Nature Preserves&#39; Kentucky Heritage Land Conservation Fund.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative history</h2><br>
<p>The Memorial building was constructed by the Lincoln Farm Association on the Sinking Spring site between 1909 and 1911. In 1916, they donated the Memorial and property to the Federal government, which established the Abraham Lincoln National Park on July 17, 1916. The War Department administered the site until August 10, 1933, when it was transferred to the National Park Service. It was designated as the Abraham Lincoln National Historical Park on August 11, 1939. It was renamed and redesignated Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site on September 8, 1959. As with all historic sites administered by the National Park Service, the site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, effective on October 15, 1966. The historic site&#39;s definition was expanded to include the Knob Creek site on November 6, 1998. On March 30, 2009, the two sites were again designated a National Historical Park.</p><br>
<h3>Facilities</h3><br>
<p>The Sinking Spring site, which contains the 1911 memorial, has a visitor center museum, theater and bookstore. The Knob Creek site has interpretive staff during certain days in summer months. Both sites have hiking and picnic areas.</p><br>
<p>File:Lincoln Knob Creek Tavern 2.JPGKnob Creek Tavern</p><br>
<p>File:Lincoln Knob Creek Tavern.JPGSouth view of tavern</p><br>
<p>File:Lincoln Knob Creek Tavern back.JPGBack view of tavern</p><br>
<p>Adams National Historical Park, formerly Adams National Historic Site, in Quincy, Massachusetts, preserves the home of United States presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams, of USA envoy to Great Britain, Charles Francis Adams, and of writers and historians Henry Adams and Brooks Adams.</p><br>
<p>The national historical parks eleven buildings tell the story of five generations of the Adams family (from 1720 to 1927) including presidents, first ladies, envoys, historians, writers, and family members who supported and contributed to their success. In addition to Peacefield, home to four generations of the Adams family, the parks main historic features include the John Adams Birthplace (October 30, 1735), the nearby John Quincy Adams Birthplace (July 11, 1767), and the Stone Library (built in 1870 to house the books of John Quincy Adams and believed to be the first presidential library), containing more than 14,000 historic volumes in 12 languages.</p><br>
<p>There is an off-site Visitors Center less than a mile (1.6 km) away. Regularly scheduled tours of the houses are offered in season (April 19 to November 10) by guided tour only. Access to United First Parish Church, where the Adamses worshipped and are buried, is provided by the congregation, for which they ask a small donation. The Church of the Presidents is across the town square from the Visitors Center and provides tours on a regular basis.</p><br>
<h2>John Adams Birthplace</h2><br>
<p>This house is a National Historic Landmark, the birthplace of John Adams. In 1720 it was purchased by Deacon John Adams, Sr., the father of the future second president. The younger Adams lived here until 1764, when he married Abigail Smith. It is a few feet from the John Quincy Adams Birthplace home, where John and Abigail Adams moved.</p><br>
<h2>John Quincy Adams Birthplace</h2><br>
<p>The house where John and Abigail Adams and their family lived during the time he was working on the Declaration of Independence and the Revolutionary War is also the 1767 birthplace of their son, John Quincy Adams. The younger Adams grew up in the home, and he and his family lived in it for a time later in life.</p><br>
<h2>The Old House at Peacefield</h2><br>
<p>The Old House was originally constructed in 1731 for Leonard Vassall, a sugar plantation owner, and was used as his summer house. The house stood empty for some time before it, along with 75 acre, was purchased by Adams on September 23, 1787, for 600 pounds. The Adams family renamed it Peacefield, moved in the next year, and various generations occupied it until 1927, when Brooks Adams, the last occupant, died. That year it was sold to the Adams Memorial Society.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service acquired it in 1947, and it has been a National Historic Site ever since.</p><br>
<h2>Stone Library</h2><br>
<p>The Stone Library, completed in 1870, stands next to Peacefield and houses personal papers and over 14,000 books which belonged to John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Charles Francis Adams, Henry Adams, and Brooks Adams. In his will, John Quincy Adams requested that the library be built out of stone so that it would be fireproof.</p><br>
<p>The Library holds John Adams copy of George Washingtons Farewell Address as well as the Mendi Bible, a Bible presented to John Quincy Adams in 1841 by the freed Mendi captives who had mutinied on the schooner La Amistad and whom Adams had successfully defended before the United States Supreme Court.</p><br>
<p>Henry Adams wrote his nine-volume The History of the United States of America 1801–1817 in the library.</p><br>
<p>On the evening of November 11, 1996, one or more thieves used a chainsaw to gain access to and rob the building. The break-in triggered the site’s alarm system; however, the perpetrators fled before police arrived.</p><br>
<p>Four priceless books were stolen: a 1772 English Bible which belonged to Louisa Catherine Adams (John Quincy Adamss English-born wife), a 1611 King James Bible, an 18th-century copy of Marcus Elieser Blochs Ichthyology (which contained hand-painted illustrations), and the 1838 Mendi Bible (which was presented to John Quincy Adams by the group of 53 Mendi tribes people whom Adams defended for at the Supreme Court). With the help of the FBI, the books were returned to Adams National Historical Park undamaged. Kevin P. Gildea, 42, was indicted on two counts of theft and one count each of concealing objects of cultural heritage and concealing government property.</p><br>
<h2>United First Parish Church</h2><br>
<p>The church where both presidents and first ladies are entombed in the Adams Crypt is in close walking distance to the park visitor center but is not and has never been run by the National Park service. It is owned by the active congregation of Unitarian Universalists. In the past ten years, the congregation has used almost $2 million of its own resources to preserve the building. Church volunteers regularly give tours of the crypt, and the church is a popular second destination among park visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Administrative history</h2><br>
<p>February 13, 1927 — Brooks Adams, the last owner of the house, dies.</p><br>
<p>December 9, 1946 — The Old House at Peacefield was designated the Adams Mansion National Historic Site</p><br>
<p>1948- Wilhelmina Harris, Brooks Adams&#39;s former secretary, is hired to work at the park.</p><br>
<p>1950 — Wilhelmina Harris is promoted to become the park&#39;s first superintendent</p><br>
<p>November 26, 1952 — The site was renamed Adams National Historic Site and an adjoining parcel of land was added.</p><br>
<p>December 19, 1960 — the birthplaces of both presidents were designated National Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<p>October 15, 1966 — The entire historic site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (as are all historic areas administered by the National Park Service).</p><br>
<p>December 30, 1970 — The privately owned United First Parish Church was also designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>November 2, 1998 — The historic site was redesignated Adams National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>The Boston National Historical Park is an association of sites that showcase Boston&#39;s role in the American Revolution and other parts of history. It was designated a national park on October 1, 1974. Seven of the eight sites are connected by the Freedom Trail, a walking tour of downtown Boston. All eight properties are National Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<p>Five of the sites that make up the park are neither owned nor operated by the National Park Service, and operate through cooperative agreements established upon the park&#39;s creation. The park service operates visitor centers in Faneuil Hall and at the Charlestown Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>Boston National Historical Park, along with Boston African American and Boston Harbor Islands, comprise the National Parks of Boston, all under the same superintendent.</p><br>
<h2>Locations</h2><br>
<h3>Park properties</h3><br>
<h4>Bunker Hill Monument</h4><br>
<p>The Bunker Hill Monument, located at the top of Breed&#39;s Hill in the Charlestown neighborhood of Boston, is a granite obelisk that was constructed in the mid-19th century to commemorate the Battle of Bunker Hill, fought June 17, 1775. The property is owned and administered by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h4>Bunker Hill Museum</h4><br>
<p>The park operates a small museum dedicated to the battle of Bunker Hill and other associated history, across the street from monument grounds. The museum is known for its large-scale diorama of the battle on the second floor.</p><br>
<h4>Charlestown Navy Yard</h4><br>
<p>The Charlestown Navy Yard is located on the southern edge of Charlestown on the banks of the Charles River. Used during the American Revolutionary War as a shipyard, it continued to serve as a base of the United States Navy until 1975, when the Navy turned the property over to the National Park Service. The Yard is home to (the oldest floating commissioned naval vessel in the world), and, a destroyer from the Second World War that is now operated as a museum ship.</p><br>
<h4>Dorchester Heights</h4><br>
<p>Dorchester Heights was fortified by General George Washington in March 1776, compelling the British to withdraw from Boston and ending the Siege of Boston. A monument was erected on the site in 1902. Located in South Boston, Dorchester Heights is the only site in the park that is not on the Freedom Trail.</p><br>
<h3>Affiliated sites and Freedom Trail partners</h3><br>
<h4>Faneuil Hall</h4><br>
<p>Faneuil Hall was first constructed in the 1740s, and was the site of important pro-independence speeches. The hall is owned and operated by the city of Boston, with the park service offering talks in the Great Hall.</p><br>
<h4>Old North Church</h4><br>
<p>The Old North Church, built in 1723, was the location where Paul Revere had signal lanterns lit on the night of April 18, 1775, prior to his "midnight ride" that led to the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the start of the revolutionary war. The church, the oldest operating in Boston, has an Episcopalian congregation, which owns and operates the building.</p><br>
<h4>Old South Meeting House</h4><br>
<p>The Old South Meeting House, built in 1729 was the site of numerous pre-revolutionary meetings, including one, attended by a crowd estimated at more than 5,000, on the evening prior to the Boston Tea Party in December 1773. It served as a church until 1877, when it became a museum operated by a nonprofit organization dedicated to its preservation.</p><br>
<h4>Old State House</h4><br>
<p>The Old State House is the oldest municipal building in Boston. Built in 1713, it was the seat of the Colonial government, and afterward the State government, until 1798. The Boston Massacre took place in front of the building in 1770. In 1881 it was saved from destruction by the Bostonian Society, which was formed specifically to preserve it. The society still operates the City owned building as a museum. The Boston Massacre is reenacted regularly under the society&#39;s auspices.</p><br>
<h4>Paul Revere House</h4><br>
<p>The Paul Revere House is one of the oldest surviving buildings in Boston. It was built in 1680, and was purchased by Paul Revere in 1770. Today it is owned and operated by the Paul Revere Memorial Association as a museum.</p><br>
<h2>Park Service activities</h2><br>
<p>The National Park Service, in addition to managing its properties that are part of the park, operates visitor centers at Faneuil Hall (1st Floor) and at the Navy Yard. It offers guided tours of the Freedom Trail. The Navy offers tours of USS Constitution, which is adjacent to the Park Service&#39;s visitor center at the Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>The Cane River Creole National Historical Park was established in 1994 to preserve the resources and cultural landscapes of the Cane River region in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana. Located along Cane River Lake, the park is approximately 63 acres and includes two French Creole cotton plantations, Oakland and Magnolia. Both plantations are complete in their historic settings, including landscapes, outbuildings, structures, furnishings, and artifacts; and they are the most intact French Creole cotton plantations in the United States. In total, 65 historic structures and over a million artifacts enhance the National Park Service mission as it strives to tell the story of the evolution of plantation agriculture through the perspective of the land owners, enslaved workers, overseers, skilled workers, and tenant farmers who resided along the Cane River for over two hundred years. This park is included as a site on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail.</p><br>
<p>A defining characteristic of the park is the conservation and interpretation of Creole culture. In colonial Louisiana the term "Creole" was used to indicate New World products derived from Old World stock, and could apply to people, architecture, or livestock. Regarding people, Creole historically referred to those born in Louisiana during the French and Spanish periods, regardless of their ethnicity. Today, as in the past, Creole transcends racial boundaries. It connects people to their colonial roots, be they descendants of European settlers, enslaved Africans, or the many of mixed heritage, which may include African, French, Spanish, and American Indian influences. The Prud&#39;hommes of Oakland and the LeComtes of Magnolia were considered French Creole. As with others in the area, the homes and plantations of these families reflected the French Creole architectural style and way of life.</p><br>
<p>The historic landscapes and dozens of structures preserved at Oakland and Magnolia plantations are the setting for the stories of workers (enslaved and free) and late post-Civil War tenant farmers who worked the same land for over two centuries, adapting to historical, economic, social, and agricultural change. Today their descendants carry on many of their traditions.</p><br>
<h2>Magnolia</h2><br>
<p>The origins of Magnolia Plantation can be traced to the mid-18th century, when the French LeComte family received grants to the land, and are continued by the French Hertzog family. In 1753, Jean Baptiste LeComte received a French land grant in Natchitoches Parish. LeComte established the Shallow Lake plantation and focused mainly on tobacco as a commodity crop, and subsistence farming. The LeComte family pioneered through the colonial rule of the French and the Spanish, and became one of the most successful landowning families in Natchitoches Parish. By the early 19th century the LeComte family was producing cotton and expanding their landholdings.</p><br>
<p>In the 1830s, Ambrose LeComte II acquired the land that would come to form Magnolia Plantation. During this period, the LeComtes were extremely prosperous and began to build most of the structures that are still located on Magnolia. By the 1850s Ambrose and his wife Julia (Buard) retired to their Natchitoches townhouse, where Ambrose could focus on his lucrative race horse business. By 1852 management of the plantation was turned over to Ambrose&#39;s son-in-law, Matthew Hertzog. The name Hertzog would eventually become inextricably linked with the plantation.</p><br>
<p>This prosperous period for the planter family would come to an abrupt halt with the Civil War. During the Civil War, Magnolia&#39;s main house was burned to the ground by Union troops during the Red River Campaign. In addition, crops and plantation structures were destroyed by both Confederate and Union armies.</p><br>
<p>After the Civil War, the LeComte-Hertzog family rebuilt their plantation along with the main house. They converted much of their land to be worked by the new labor system of sharecropping by freedmen. In addition, they leased some acreage to tenant farmers, who were mostly Creoles of color.</p><br>
<p>The system of sharecropping required an agreement between the landowner and the tenant. The sharecropper agreed to farm a section of the owner&#39;s land in exchange for part of the crops or the money the crops generated. The plantation owner often supplied the seed and agricultural equipment required to cultivate the crop. On larger plantations, such as Magnolia and Oakland, a plantation store was opened to sell goods to the sharecroppers. A hardship faced by many sharecroppers across the South was the cycle of poverty created through the constant flow of debt and repayment owed to the plantation store. There was often little money left to live on.</p><br>
<p>During the 20th century, the old plantation world was fading. Mechanization replaced many black workers on the cotton fields by the 1960s. Yet many of the community&#39;s old ways persisted. At Magnolia, workers and planters still enjoyed baseball games and horse races, and celebrated Juneteenth. The last black family left the plantation in 1968. The Hertzog family contracted with an agricultural company to work the land.</p><br>
<p>In the early 21st century, Magnolia Plantation is recognized as a Bicentennial Farm and a National Historic Landmark. The main house at Magnolia and the farming acreage are owned by the Hertzog family and are not open to the public. On December 29, 2022, the main house and surrounding grounds were added to the national historical park&#39;s authorized boundary.</p><br>
<p>But the Plantation Store, the Overseer&#39;s House, the Blacksmith Shop, the Slave/Tenant Quarters, the Gin Barn, Cotton Picker Shed, and Carriage House are all part of Cane River Creole National Historical Park, which was designated in 1994. They are open to visitors. The gin barn houses two types of cotton gins and a rare 1830s mule-powered cotton press, which is the last of its kind still standing in its original location. The lives of the diverse people associated with Magnolia are being represented to reflect the resilience, resourcefulness, dedication, and continuous interaction of families and communities along Cane River.</p><br>
<h2>Oakland</h2><br>
<p>Oakland Plantation was started in the 18th century with a land grant to the French Creole Prudhomme family. In 1789, Emanuel Prudhomme received a land grant from the Spanish government, who ruled Louisiana during that time. Emmanuel was one of the first planters to grow cotton in the area. During this period, Emmanuel began to purchase enslaved workers to labor in the fields and build the structures needed on the plantation. In 1818, Prudhomme began construction of his plantation home. In the late 1820s, Emanuels son, Pierre Phanor Prud&#39;homme, took over management of the plantation.</p><br>
<p>As with Magnolia and most large plantations of the early 19th century, the Prud&#39;homme plantation was a self-sufficient community that grew or made everything that was needed. Its commodity crop was cotton, but produce was grown for use on the plantation, as well as food for animals. Livestock structures were constructed to house mules, chickens, horses, and turkeys. In addition, housing had to be constructed for the overseer and the enslaved people, as well as work sites, such as the wash house and the carpenter shop. An unusual building to modern eyes is the pigeonnière, where pigeons were raised to be enjoyed as a food delicacy.</p><br>
<p>Although Pierre Phanor had managed the plantation since the 1820s, he did not become the owner until 1845 upon his fathers death. Phanor continued to successfully manage the plantation until the Civil War. During these years the enslaved population continued to perform a variety of skills: from cultivating the land and processing the cotton, to constructing the buildings, managing livestock, and making most of the goods needed by the plantations occupants.</p><br>
<p>The Civil War brought destruction to the Cane River region. During the Red River Campaign both the Union and Confederate armies destroyed plantation buildings, crops, and livestock. At the Prudhomme plantation, the cotton gin was burned. The facts relating to the survival of the plantation home and Phanors fate have become clouded by several unconfirmed stories and legends. One family legend states that Phanor was arrested by Union soldiers. He became ill as he was moved from his plantation to Natchitoches, where he died in a cousin&#39;s home.</p><br>
<p>At wars end, Phanors two sons divided the plantation. Jacques Alphonse Prudhomme kept the land that included the main house and surrounding lands west of the Cane River. Pierre Emmanuel Prudhomme took the land on the east side of the river and established his own plantation, which he called Atahoe.</p><br>
<p>Alphonse renamed his home as Oakland and began rebuilding his fortunes. He adapted to the free labor economy, hiring freedmen as sharecroppers; some Creoles of color leased land separately as tenant farmers. During this era, the Prud&#39;hommes opened a store and post office at Oakland to provide supplies and services for sharecroppers and tenant farmers. The plantation store operated until 1983, serving the larger community when the number of farm workers declined. Low cotton prices in the late 19th century and a boll weevil infestation in the early 20th century resulted in mostly lean times for the planter family and the workers until after World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Modernization came fitfully to Cane River. Phanor Prudhomme II bought the familys first car in 1910, while most people in the area still traveled by mule-drawn wagon. By the 1960s the family adopted mechanization for agriculture, with machines doing more of the tasks long performed by mules and human workers. During World War II and after, many of the remaining black workers had left the plantations in the Great Migration for employment in war industries.</p><br>
<p>Lyle Saxon wrote a short story titled "Cane River" published in 1926. The Cane River and Creoles also feature in Saxon&#39;s 1937 novel Children of Strangers. John Isiah Walton created an artwork depicting a girl looking at her reflection titled "Cane River".</p><br>
<p>Oakland Plantation is listed by the National Park Service as a National Historic Landmark and Bicentennial Farm. Open to the public as a unit of Cane River Creole National Historical Park, a unit of the National Park System, Oaklands outbuildings, sheds, store houses, and tenant cabins illustrate the daily life of a working cotton plantation. The site offers a window into the Creole colonial culture, maintained by ethnic French such as the Prudhomme family, along with generations of blacks and Creoles of color in the formation of the larger community culture and agricultural landscape.</p><br>
<p>Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site is a historic house museum in Hyde Park, New York, United States. Designated a National Historic Landmark in 1940, it is owned and operated by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>The property, historically known as Hyde Park, was one of several homes owned by Frederick William Vanderbilt and his wife Louise Holmes Anthony. The 54-room Vanderbilt mansion was designed by the preeminent architectural firm McKim, Mead & White. Construction occurred between 1896 and 1899. The house is an example of the Beaux-Arts architecture style. The interiors are archetypes of the American Renaissance, blending European architectural salvage, antiques, and fine period reproductions representing an array of historical styles. The site includes 211 acre of the original larger property (once around 600 acres) situated on a bluff overlooking the Hudson River and includes manicured lawns, formal gardens, woodlands, and numerous auxiliary buildings.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Historically known as Hyde Park, the Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site is one of the area&#39;s oldest Hudson River estates.</p><br>
<p>Frederick and Louise Vanderbilt purchased Hyde Park in May 1895 from Langdons heirs. Attracted to the Hudson Valley and the land on the east bank of the Hudson River, Frederick and his wife settled into their 600 acre estate. The location offered quick and easy access to New York City on the Vanderbilts own New York Central Railroad. The house was designed and built between 1896 and 1899, and was primarily used as a vacation home for Frederick Vanderbilts family. The previous owners of the estate had made it well known for its grand landscape and array of different plants and trees throughout the property. The New York Times described the Vanderbilts estate as "the finest place on the Hudson between New York and Albany."</p><br>
<p>Their niece, Margaret "Daisy" Van Alen, inherited the property when Frederick Vanderbilt died in 1938. Encouraged by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (who owned an estate nearby), Van Alen donated a portion of the estate, including the residence with most of its original furnishings, to the National Park Service in 1940. From 1941 to 1943, Roosevelts Secret Service was housed in the basement and third-floor service areas, and some of the Presidents personal White House staff and friends occasionally stayed in the main bedrooms of the house, including those of Frederick and Louise Vanderbilt.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion</h2><br>
<p>The 54-room mansion is the work of the architectural firm McKim, Mead & White. Charles Follen McKim designed the plan in the Beaux-Arts style and Stanford White assisted as an antiques buyer.</p><br>
<p>The house has a classic Beaux-Arts plan, with the major public rooms on its ground floor – the central Elliptical Hall, Dining Room, and Living Room – all in one line, parallel to the Hudson River. North and South Foyers provide transitional space from the Hall to the Dining Room and Living Room. Five secondary spaces are located off the Elliptical Hall: the Lobby, Den, Gold Room, Grand Stair Hall, and Lavatory. The second floor rooms, comprising Mrs. Vanderbilts suite of Bedroom, Boudoir and Bathroom (designed by Ogden Codman), Mr. Vanderbilts Bedroom and Bathroom, Guest Bedrooms and Baths and the Linen Room, are disposed around the Second Floor Hall and the North and South Foyers. The third floor contains five additional guest bedrooms, and a Servants Hall separated from the guests rooms by a door at the main staircase. Supported by both concrete and steel, the Vanderbilt mansion was considered modern for its time. The mansion also included plumbing and forced hot air central heating and electric lighting which was powered by a hydroelectric plant built on the estate on the Crum Elbow stream. The Vanderbilt estate had electric lighting before the surrounding area.</p><br>
<p>Herter Brothers and A. H. Davenport and Company were subcontractors who executed McKim&#39;s interior designs. The Vanderbilts also hired Georges Glaenzer and Ogden Codman to decorate several rooms. E.F. Caldwell & Co. manufactured the majority of the lighting.</p><br>
<p>When the Vanderbilts decided to replace cowbarns that dotted their extensive property, the couple chose Robert H. Robertson, a prominent architect who also designed Shelburne Farms, home of Frederick Vanderbilts sister, Eliza Osgood Vanderbilt Webb. Robertsons coach house, completed in the Queen Anne style, is in vast contrast to stoic mansion.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>The Italian gardens are detached from the house and incorporated formal elements typical of the Italian style. This meant that the beds were arranged in such a way that if you drew a line across the middle, either horizontally or vertically, one side of the line would mirror the other side. These formal gardens also consisted of multiple tiers, which depended on the type of plants. Each level was different. Frederick himself added the rose garden which contained almost 2000 vintage rose bushes along with other kinds of roses.</p><br>
<p>Fort Warren is a historic fort on the 28 acre Georges Island at the entrance to Boston Harbor. The fort is named for Revolutionary War hero Dr. Joseph Warren, who sent Paul Revere on his famous ride, and was later killed at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The name was transferred in 1833 from the first Fort Warren &ndash; built in 1808 &ndash; which was renamed Fort Winthrop.</p><br>
<p>Fort Warren is a pentagonal bastion fort, made with stone and granite, and was constructed from 1833 to 1861, completed shortly after the beginning of the American Civil War. Fort Warren defended the harbor in Boston, Massachusetts, from 1861 through the end of World War II, and during the Civil War served as a prison for Confederate officers and government officials, including Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens. The fort remained active through the Spanish–American War and World War I, and was re-activated during World War II. It was permanently decommissioned in 1947, and is now a tourist site. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 as a masterpiece of coastal engineering of the pre-Civil War period, and for its role in the Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>Fort Warren was built from 1833 to 1861 and was completed shortly after the beginning of the American Civil War as part of the third system of US fortifications.</p><br>
<p>The Army engineer in charge during the bulk of the forts construction was Colonel Sylvanus Thayer, who is best known for his tenure as Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. It was the fifth largest of the 42 third system forts. The overall plan was pentagonal in shape, slightly irregular to make the best use of the islands terrain. The fort features excellent granite work. A demilune (half-moon) battery protecting the north sally port is a rare feature in US forts. The fort was originally designed for over 200 guns, including some mortars and flank howitzers. During the Civil War it was armed with 15-inch and 10-inch Rodman smoothbore guns.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>During the Civil War, the island fort served as a prison for captured Confederate army and navy personnel, elected civil officials from the state of Maryland, and Northern political prisoners. The fort was commanded by Colonel Justin Dimick from 1861 to 1864. Dimick was noted for his humane and compassionate treatment of the Confederate prisoners held at the fort. Of over 1,000 Confederate prisoners at the fort, only 13 died there, giving Fort Warren a much lower mortality rate than any other prisoner of war camp (Union or Confederate) during the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>James M. Mason and John Slidell, the Confederate diplomats seized in the Trent affair, were among those held at the fort. Confederate military officers held at Fort Warren included Richard S. Ewell, Isaac R. Trimble, John Gregg, Adam "Stovepipe" Johnson, Simon Bolivar Buckner Sr., and Lloyd Tilghman. High-ranking civilians held at Fort Warren include Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens and Confederate Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan. The prison camp had a reputation for humane treatment of its detainees. When the camp commander&#39;s son, Lieutenant Justin E. Dimick, left Fort Warren for active duty in the field with the Second USA Artillery, he was given a letter from Confederate officers in the camp urging good care should he be captured. (He was later mortally wounded at Chancellorsville in May, 1863.)</p><br>
<p>On August 19, 1863, six prisoners of war attempted an escape from the prison. Two were caught while still on the island, two were caught while sailing toward Canada and the prison authorities claimed to believe that the other two drowned, no trace of them after swimming toward shore apparently having been found.</p><br>
<p>The famous Union marching song John Brown&#39;s Body was written at the fort using a tune from an old Methodist camp song, and was performed at a flag-raising there on 12 May 1861. The song was carried to the Army of the Potomac by the men of the "Webster Regiment" (12th Massachusetts Infantry), who had mustered in at Fort Warren. Julia Ward Howe heard this song while visiting Washington, DC. At the suggestion of her minister, Howe was encouraged to write new words. The Battle Hymn of the Republic, which was initially published as a poem, was later matched with the melody of the "John Brown" song and became one of the best remembered songs of the Civil War era.</p><br>
<h2>Post–Civil War through Endicott Period</h2><br>
<p>In the 1870s Fort Warren was upgraded with new barbette batteries on the parapets along with a six-gun external battery; these were armed with Rodman guns. A plaque at the fort states that the southeast bastion was roofed over at this time to create a rare (possibly unique) casemated 15-inch Rodman gun battery. The massive brick arches built to enclose this bastion are impressive.</p><br>
<p>From 1892 to 1903 Fort Warren was rebuilt to accommodate modern breech-loading rifled guns under the Endicott program. Five batteries were added to the fort, replacing some of the older gun positions, as follows:</p><br>
<p>The two 12-inch (305 mm) and five 10-inch (254 mm) guns were the fort&#39;s main armament against enemy battleships. For defense against smaller vessels, particularly to defend nearby mine fields against minesweepers, two 4-inch (102 mm) and three 3-inch (76 mm) guns were included. The 4-inch guns were a Navy design by Driggs-Schroeder, and in the whole US Army coast defense system only Fort Warren and Fort Washington in Maryland had this type of gun. Battery Adams was built of low-quality concrete and was disarmed and abandoned due to deterioration in 1914.</p><br>
<h2>World War I through World War II</h2><br>
<p>Fort Warren was the headquarters of the Coast Defenses of Boston in World War I. In 1917–1918 the four 10-inch guns of Battery Bartlett were removed for potential service as railway artillery on the Western Front. Contrary to some references, although some 10-inch guns were shipped to France to be mounted as railway guns, none appear to have been used in action in World War I. Different 10-inch M1888 guns, including two from Battery Reilly at Fort Adams in Rhode Island and two from storage, replaced these weapons in 1919.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, with World War I over, several weapon types were withdrawn from Coast Artillery service. These included the 4-inch Driggs-Schroeder guns of Battery Plunkett and the 3-inch Driggs-Seabury guns of Battery Lowell. None of these were replaced. The 4-inch guns at Fort Warren remained as display pieces at least through 1941.</p><br>
<p>During World War II, the fort served as a control center for Boston Harbors south mine field, a precaution taken in anticipation of potential attacks by Kriegsmarine U-boats. At that time, Fort Warren was garrisoned by the 241st Coast Artillery Regiment (Harbor Defense), a Massachusetts National Guard unit that was federalized in September, 1940. As new 16-inch batteries were built, particularly Battery Murphy at the East Point Military Reservation, Fort Warrens remaining guns were scrapped in 1942–1944. Fort Warren was permanently decommissioned after 1950. At some point an emplacement of Battery Bartlett was demolished for an access road.</p><br>
<h2>Decommissioning and opening to the public</h2><br>
<p>Fort Warren was owned by the USA federal government until 1958, when the state obtained it from the General Services Administration. In 1961, the fort was reopened to the public after initial restoration.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation maintains and administers the fort, which is the centerpiece of the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area. The fort is reachable by ferry from downtown Boston, Hingham, or Hull to Georges Island. Transfers are then available for those who wish to visit some of the other Harbor Islands.</p><br>
<p>The fort is typically open from early or mid May through Columbus Day weekend. Park rangers offer guided tours, or you may explore on your own. An information booth just outside the sally port (the main entrance to the fort) posts information about available activities. The island offers a well-stocked snack bar, water fountains, and a large number of composting toilets. There is also a museum located in the old mine storehouse (the red brick building opposite the ferry dock), a number of picnic tables, and a children&#39;s play structure. The tops of several of the walls and several of the casemates and magazines beneath them are open to visitors. The dock side of the fort features two Civil War 3-inch rifled guns converted to breechloaders. 10-inch Rodman guns, projectiles from the Endicott era, and two World War II 40 mm Bofors guns are also at the fort. The museum includes a demonstration model of a disappearing gun and a Nike-Ajax missile.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate memorial</h3><br>
<p>The Commonwealth&#39;s only Confederate memorial, a headstone which commemorates 13 southern soldiers who died while imprisoned during the Civil War at the fort was housed on the island until 2017. The headstone marker was installed in 1963 by the Boston Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. Governor Charlie Baker called for the removal of the memorial in June 2017. The state subsequently covered over and removed the monument in October 2017 and stored it in the Massachusetts State Archives.</p><br>
<p>The Brown Hotel is a historic 16-story hotel in downtown Louisville, Kentucky, USA, located on the corner of Fourth and Broadway. It contains 294 rooms and over 24,000 ft of meeting space. It also contains special amenities, such as a fitness center and three restaurants. It is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Brown Hotel is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The hotel which featured 600 rooms, ballrooms, shoppes, meeting rooms, and restaurants, was designed by Preston J. Bradshaw and opened in 1923, only 10 months after construction began. The hotel cost $4 million, and was funded and owned by James Graham Brown, a local entrepreneur who wanted to compete with The Seelbach Hotel just a few blocks down the street. The hotel quickly became a central part of the growing downtown Louisville economy and the social lives of the locals.</p><br>
<p>In 1926 the hotel chef Fred K. Schmidt introduced the Hot Brown sandwich, consisting of an open-faced turkey sandwich with bacon with a delicate Mornay sauce. The Hot Brown became rather popular among locals and visitors alike. The sandwich has been featured in various programs about regional cuisine, such as the 2002 PBS documentary Sandwiches That You Will Like and a 2011 episode of the Travel Channel&#39;s Man v. Food.</p><br>
<p>Many famous people have visited the hotel in the past and present. David Lloyd George, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, was the first person to sign the guest register, and Queen Marie of Romania also visited. The famous soprano Lily Pons was allowed to bring her pet lion along with her, and it roamed free in her room. Actor Victor Mature was an elevator operator at the hotel before becoming famous; he lost his job after abandoning his post at the elevator and leaving a simple note so that he could go dance with a girl during one of the hotel&#39;s many roof-top parties.</p><br>
<p>The combination of Prohibition and the Great Depression led to hard times for the hotel in the early 1930s. The Brown defaulted on its loan, and the bank threatened foreclosure. Employees were asked to work for periods without pay, and the Brown was only able to stay open due to the employees&#39; willingness to do so.</p><br>
<p>When the 1937 Flood hit Louisville, the Brown&#39;s first floor was flooded. Although there was no electricity, the hotel stayed open, and many people whose homes were submerged stayed at the hotel. One resident recalled: "We were rowing down Broadway and there was The Brown Hotel. The doors were open and the place was filled with water so we just rowed our boat in one door, went through the lobby and rowed out another." Elmer H. Weck, a bell captain of the hotel at this time, is recorded to have caught a two-pound fish in the lobby. The fish was later mounted and hung in the hotel lobby for a number of years. WAVE radio, located on the 15th floor, was the only radio station to remain in operation in its own facilities during the flood.</p><br>
<p>Like much of the rest of the nation, economic recovery began in the buildup to World War II. Thousands of soldiers passing through from Fort Knox would stay in the area, and the hotel would frequently be filled to capacity. The week of the Kentucky Derby was and still is the most successful week of every year, celebrities such as The Duke of Windsor, Harry Truman, Elizabeth Taylor, Joan Crawford, Gene Autry, Eva Marie Saint, and Muhammad Ali have stayed here during this time.</p><br>
<p>As the city declined in the 1960s and 1970s, the fortunes of The Brown declined as well. Though $1.5 million was spent in 1965 to modernize the Brown and another downtown hotel, attendance remained low. Then on March 20, 1969, James Graham Brown died, this in turn led to the further decline of the hotel and in 1971 after financial shortfalls The Brown closed. The building was sold to the Louisville Public Schools and became the headquarters for the city school system. When Louisville and Jefferson County schools merged in 1975 the new school system used the county schools&#39; VanHoose Education Center as its headquarters and the Brown Education Center housed other school administrative offices.</p><br>
<p>The city of Louisville began to make many moves to revitalize the downtown area in the 1980s. As part of this project the "Broadway Group" was formed, which acquired The Brown from Jefferson County Public Schools and began its renovation in 1983. The schools took a toll on the building, however, the grand public rooms were spared and were able to be saved. After the restoration of the hotel it was reopened as a Hilton Hotel. In 1993 the hotel was purchased by the Camberley Hotel Company who furthered the restoration and returned the hotel to its former glory, although the once two-story Bluegrass room became a single story room with three other meeting rooms overhead. Another alteration made to the hotel was the demolition of the dividing wall in every other room thus doubling the size of each guest room and taking the hotel from 600 rooms to its present 293 guest rooms. After the restorations and alterations were completed, Camberley sold the hotel to its present owner, based out of Galveston, Texas in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Brown served as location for numerous scenes in the 2005 film Elizabethtown, directed by Cameron Crowe.</p><br>
<p>Big Spring International Park  is a large park located in downtown Huntsville, Alabama. The park was built around its namesake "Big Spring", the original water source that the city of Huntsville was built around. The Huntsville Museum of Art and Von Braun Center are located in the park. The park is also notable as the venue for the Panoply Arts Festival, held the last full weekend in April, Big Spring Jam, an annual music festival held on the fourth weekend in September from 1993 to 2011, and The Battle of the Buffalo, a buffalo wings competition held by the University of Alabama in Huntsville Alpha Tau Omega fraternity to support cancer research.</p><br>
<p>Big Spring Park is the expected trail head of the future Singing River Trail of North Alabama. A 70-mile bicycling and walking trail, it will connect Huntsville to Madison, Decatur, and Athens with an extended path along the Tennessee River.</p><br>
<h2>The Big Spring</h2><br>
<p>The Big Spring is a large, underground karst spring. Isaac and Joseph Criner had previously reached the Big Spring and considered settlement, but due to the presence of bears and mosquitoes left to settle New Market instead. with its usual flow between 7 and 20 e6USgal per day, depending on the time of the year.</p><br>
<p>From 1827 to the early 1840s, what would later become the park grounds served as the site of the Fearn Canal, built from 1821 to 1824. The canal was built by the Indian Creek Navigation Company, led by local resident Dr. Thomas Fearn. It linked downtown Huntsville and the spring to the Tennessee River, allowing traders to bypass a costly wagon haul of about 11 miles South to the nearest river port, Ditto&#39;s Landing in the town of Whitesburg. The canal eventually became obsolete upon the construction of railroads.</p><br>
<p>The Big Spring also served as the source of the citys water supply from settlement to the late 1960s when the Tennessee Valley Authority built the water treatment plant on the Tennessee River. The first pumphouse was built in the 1830s. It was enclosed in the 1850s. A water turbine pushed water up the bluffs through cedar pipes to reach the citys residents. Until 1840, the city waterwork&#39;s system was privately owned by the family of settler LeRoy Pope. His son sold the land to the city cheaply on the condition his heirs received their water for free and that the space around the Big Spring Basin would be open to the public. The first pumphouse was torn down in 1860 prior to the American Civil War and replaced by the second pumphouse made out of stone. New pumps were put in but little changed during the war. In 1890, the second pumphouse was extended with a new wing and smokestack to meet the new water needs as the city expanded and the new Monte Sano Hotel opened. This pumphouse was torn down by Col. Hiram M. Chittenden of the USA Army Corps of Engineers in 1899, and the waterworks system was moved further into the city. The third pumphouse would stand near California Street until the 1960s, when the water treatment plant would be built on the Tennessee River.</p><br>
<h2>The Park</h2><br>
<p>Big Spring Park is named for a spring named "the big spring" by the indigenous Cherokee and Chickasaw. The original park site is situated in downtown Huntsville, starting from the west side of the courthouse square, and extending about two blocks southwest. This part of the park includes the spring itself and a canal extending to the rest of the park. The parks construction began September 21, 1898, under the direction of Chittenden of the USA Army Corps of Engineers, stationed at the park during the Spanish–American War. Col. Chittenden became interested in the park and the source of the Big Spring. While exploring the source of the Big Spring, he discovered that horse waste from the courthouse square above was seeping into the citys water supply that the Big Spring produced. Col. Chittenden and his men tore down the pumphouse located at the basin of the Big Spring, put in a fountain, and lined the canal from 1898 to 1901. The park expanded across Church Street to the space which now has the park&#39;s lagoon in 1968. In 2005, the park underwent additional expansion across Monroe Street to include a $284,000 fountain and a canal alongside the Von Braun Center.</p><br>
<p>Today the park prominently features gifts given by other countries and foreign nationals to the city of Huntsville, including a 1903 light beacon (often referred to as "the lighthouse") and a 1929 fog bell given by Norway in 1973. Other smaller gifts include a bench from the United Kingdom and a sundial from Germany.</p><br>
<p>The most recognizable gifts, however, are the iconic red Japanese bridge and cherry trees, given by Japanese Major General Mikio Kimata. From 1964 to 1966, Kimata, then a Lieutenant Colonel, attended Redstone Arsenal&#39;s Ordnance Guided Missile School program. As thanks to the city for its hospitality when hosting him, Kimata donated the original 60 Yoshino Cherry trees. He followed up on this gift with the donation of a "friendship bridge" to celebrate the United States Bicentennial. The bridge was formally dedicated on May 3, 1977. In 1998, Kimata and the Japanese Society of Alabama partially financed a major $36,000 renovation of the bridge. The bridge was restyled, expanded, and given a gentler slope.</p><br>
<p>A final gift, restored to its proper place in 1995, was the marble lion that sits near the Big Spring Fountain. The city was given the marble lion to commemorate the opening of the park. In the late 1960s, it had been pushed into the canal by vandals. It was salvaged and restored in 1995.</p><br>
<p>The park served as a major filming location in Constellation, a 2005 feature film.</p><br>
<p>Big Spring Park was one of the locations of a George Floyd protest that occurred on June 3, 2020, which was ended by Huntsville Police along with SWAT and Incident Response Team using tear gas, pepper spray, and rubber bullets.</p><br>
<p>Lexington Cemetery is a private, non-profit 170 acre rural cemetery and arboretum located at 833 W. Main Street, Lexington, Kentucky.</p><br>
<p>The Lexington Cemetery was established in 1848 as a place of beauty and a public cemetery, in part to deal with burials from the cholera epidemic in the area. What became Lexington National Cemetery was established in 1861 to inter American Civil War casualties. It was designed by Charles S. Bell and John Lutz. It was originally 40 acres but has expanded to 170 acres with more than 64,000 interments.</p><br>
<p>Its plantings include boxwood, cherries, crabapples, dogwoods, magnolias, taxus, as well as flowers such as begonias, chrysanthemums, irises, jonquils, lantanas, lilies, and tulips. Also on the grounds is an American basswood (Tilia Americana), which the cemetery claims to be the largest in the world. However, this claim is not supported by the National Register of Big Trees, which claims that the largest American Basswood is located in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments</h2><br>
<p>Two Confederate monuments were originally built in the cemetery, Confederate Soldier Monument in Lexington Ladies&#39; Confederate Memorial (1874) and Confederate Soldier Monument in Lexington (1893). In 2018, two additional Confederate monuments were relocated here from downtown Lexington: John C. Breckinridge Memorial and John Hunt Morgan Memorial. All four monuments are individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Some notable people</h2><br>
<p>The Lexington Cemetery maintains a list of notable interments, others are listed here:</p><br>
<h3>A</h3><br>
<p>George Madison Adams (1837–1920) – Civil War veteran, USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>James Lane Allen (1849–1925) – author</p><br>
<h3>B</h3><br>
<p>Milton K. Barlow (1818–1891) – planetarium inventor</p><br>
<p>Frances Estill Beauchamp (1860–1923) – temperance activist, social reformer, lecturer</p><br>
<p>James Burnie Beck (1822–1890) – Senator</p><br>
<p>Charles Henry Berryman (1867–1946) – Gen Mgr for James Ben Ali Haggin&#39;s Elmendorf Farm 1904–1914, Lexington Postmaster 1915–1917, President/part owner of the Phoenix Hotel (Lexington, Kentucky) 1920</p><br>
<p>Henry M. Bosworth (1860–1942) – Kentucky auditor of public accounts from 1912 to 1916, Kentucky state treasurer from 1904 to 1908</p><br>
<p>Clifton R. Breckinridge (1846–1932) – John Cabell Breckinridge&#39;s son</p><br>
<p>John Cabell Breckinridge (1821–1875) – USA Vice President, Civil War Confederate Major General</p><br>
<p>Gay Brewer (1932–2007) – golfer</p><br>
<p>Charles Jacob Bronston (1848–1909) – Commonwealths Atty 10th Judl. Dist. 1879–1895, Senator Kentucky Senate 1896–1900, respected local attorney</p><br>
<p>Charles Jacob Bronston, Jr (1882–1961) – Democrat. Kentucky House of Representatives 76th District 1940–1941 and 49th District 1948–1951</p><br>
<p>John Y. Brown Jr. (1933–2022) – Governor of Kentucky, 1979–1983, one-time owner of Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC), Boston Celtics and other business ventures.</p><br>
<p>Sanders Dewees Bruce (1825–1902) – Civil War Union Army general</p><br>
<p>Aylette Buckner (1806–1869) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Joseph Henry Bush (1794–1865) – portraitist</p><br>
<p>Abraham Buford (1820–1884) – Civil War Confederate Army officer, turfman</p><br>
<h3>C</h3><br>
<p>Henry Clay (1777–1852) – antebellum Speaker of the House, three-time USA presidential candidate, architect of the Missouri Compromise</p><br>
<p>James Brown Clay (1817–1864) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Laura Clay (1849–1941) – Suffragist</p><br>
<p>Mary Barr Clay (1839–1924) – Women&#39;s Suffrage movement leader</p><br>
<p>John Winston Coleman Jr. (1898–1983) – historian, author</p><br>
<p>Leslie Combs (1793–1881) – War of 1812 veteran, general</p><br>
<p>Robert Wickliffe Cooper (1831–1867) – Union Army officer – Civil War. Post-war service as 2nd Major of the 7th Cavalry (Gen. Geo. A. Custer). Died ignominiously before Little Big Horn.</p><br>
<p>Jesse Orin Creech (1895–1948) – World War I Fighter Ace</p><br>
<p>Rev Spencer Cooper, Trustee of Translyvania University 1829. Tended the sick in the cholera epidemic of 1833, became ill and never fully recovered. Minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Lexington. Owner of a Powder House (made gunpowder).</p><br>
<h3>D</h3><br>
<p>Hoover Dawahare, (1928–2004), businessman and politician</p><br>
<p>Mary Desha, (1850–1911), one of the four founders of Daughters of the American Revolution.</p><br>
<p>Herman Lee Donovan, (1887–1964), fourth president of the University of Kentucky</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Winslow Dudley (1785–1870), Gifted surgeon. Appointed chair of surgery and anatomy at Transylvania University 1809 and again in 1818. Pioneered surgical procedures, including removal of stones (lithotomy) and cranial surgery for epilepsy.</p><br>
<p>Ethelbert Ludlow Dudley, Medical doctor and Civil War Colonel</p><br>
<p>Basil Wilson Duke (1838–1916) – Confederate Civil War General</p><br>
<p>George B. Duncan (1861–1950) – United States Army general in World War I</p><br>
<p>Henry Clay Dunlap (1828–1872) – Civil War Union brevet brigadier general</p><br>
<h3>E</h3><br>
<p>Andrew Eugene Erwin (1830–1863) – Civil War Confederate Army officer</p><br>
<h3>F</h3><br>
<p>Joseph S. Fowler (1820–1902) – Senator</p><br>
<p>Ralph Wesley Foody (1928–1999) – character actor.</p><br>
<h3>G</h3><br>
<p>John R. Gaines (1928–2005) – thoroughbred pioneer, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>John M. Gaver, Sr. (1900–1982) – USA Hall of Fame racehorse trainer</p><br>
<p>Phyllis George (1949–2020) – Miss America 1971, sportscaster, First Lady of Kentucky (1979–1983)</p><br>
<p>Randall L. Gibson (1832–1892) – Senator, Civil War Confederate Army brevet brigadier general</p><br>
<p>Thomas Boston Gordon (1816–1891) – a founder of Beta Theta Pi fraternity</p><br>
<p>Gordon Granger (1822–1876) – Civil War Union Major general</p><br>
<h3>H</h3><br>
<p>Henry Hampton Halley (1874–1965) – author of the Halley&#39;s Bible</p><br>
<p>Roger Hanson (1827–1863) – Civil War Confederate brevet brigadier general</p><br>
<p>Hal Price Headley (1888–1962) – racehorse owner/breeder. A founder of Keeneland Racecourse. National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame</p><br>
<p>Thomas H. Hunt (1815–1884) – Civil War Confederate Army officer</p><br>
<p>Thomas Hughes (1789–1862) Owned the farm later called Elmendorf Farm from 1855 to 1862. When he bought it from Carter Harrison, Sr it was called Clifton.</p><br>
<p>William Thomas Hughes (1832–1874) WT, son of Thomas, inherited the farm later called Elmendorf Farm in 1862. He began to buy land at high interest rates, and to build up the cattle herd. He was murdered by his uncle for defaulting on a loan.</p><br>
<p>Sarah Gibson Humphreys (1830–1907), author, suffragist</p><br>
<h3>J</h3><br>
<p>John Telemachus Johnson (1788–1856) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>William Augustus Jones, Jr. (1934–2006) – minister and civil rights leader</p><br>
<h3>K</h3><br>
<p>William P. Kimball (1857–1926) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<h3>L</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Lewinski, architect</p><br>
<h3>M</h3><br>
<p>Gene Markey (1895–1980) – Hollywood screenwriter and producer and highly decorated USA Naval officer – veteran of World War I and World War II</p><br>
<p>Lucille P. Markey (1896–1982) – owner, Calumet Farm, wife of Gene Markey</p><br>
<p>Alexander Marshall (1808–1884) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Thomas Alexander Marshall (1794–1871) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Henry Brainerd McClellan (1840–1904) – Civil War Confederate Army officer, author, educator</p><br>
<p>Byron McClelland (1855–1897), renowned Thoroughbred racehorse owner/breeder</p><br>
<p>Hugh McKee (1844–1871) – Naval officer</p><br>
<p>John McMurtry (1812–1890), builder and architect</p><br>
<p>John Hunt Morgan (1825–1864) – Civil War Confederate general</p><br>
<h3>N</h3><br>
<p>C.M. Newton (1930-2018) - Hall of Fame college basketball coach and athletic director</p><br>
<h3>O</h3><br>
<p>Howard W. Oots (1876–1955), Thoroughbred racehorse trainer, owner, breeder</p><br>
<h3>P</h3><br>
<p>Katherine Pettit (1868–1936) – Cofounder of Hindman Settlement School with May Stone and the Pine Mountain Settlement School with Ethel de Long Zande</p><br>
<p>Rev. Dr. Charles Lynn Pyatt, Dean of the College of the Bible</p><br>
<h3>R</h3><br>
<p>James Reilly (1811–1863) – politician</p><br>
<p>George Robertson (1790–1874) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Arthur B. Rouse (1874–1956) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Adolph Rupp (1901–1977) – Hall of Fame basketball coach</p><br>
<h3>S</h3><br>
<p>George S. Shanklin (1807–1883) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Jouett Shouse (1879–1968) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Cincinnatus Shryock (1816–1888) – architect</p><br>
<p>William "King" Solomon, (1775–1854) – Town Drunk, Town hero – The Cholera Epidemic of 1833 killed 500 townspeople in 2 months... King Solomon stayed in Lexington to dig graves, earning the lasting respect of the town.</p><br>
<p>May Stone (1867–1946) – Cofounder of Hindman Settlement School with Katherine Pettit</p><br>
<p>King Swope (1893–1961) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<h3>T</h3><br>
<p>Barak G. Thomas (1826–1906), Thoroughbred racehorse breeder</p><br>
<p>Eliza Parker Todd – Wife of Robert Smith Todd and Mother of Mary Todd Lincoln</p><br>
<p>Levi Todd (1756–1807), One of Lexington&#39;s founders and grandfather of Mary Todd Lincoln</p><br>
<p>Lyman Beecher Todd, MD (18? – 1901) First cousin of Mary Todd Lincoln. Close friend of Lincoln. One of the doctors who helped treat the President the night of the assassination.</p><br>
<p>Robert Smith Todd (1791–1849) Father of Mary Todd Lincoln, Son of Levi Todd</p><br>
<p>William Henry Townsend (1890–1964) – historian and author</p><br>
<h3>U–V</h3><br>
<p>Thomas R. Underwood (1898–1956) – USA Congressman, Senator</p><br>
<p>Solomon Van Meter, Sr. (1818–1859) Farmer and importer of shorthorn cattle, Duncastle Farm</p><br>
<p>Solomon Lee Van Meter (1859–1928) Member of Kentucky State Legislature elected 1899, Farmer. Son of Solomon Van Meter. Owner of Shenandoah Hall on the Bryan Station Pike.</p><br>
<p>Solomon Lee Van Meter, Jr. (1888–1937) inventor of the Ripcord Backpack Parachute son of Solomon Lee Van Meter.</p><br>
<p>2nd Lt Solomon Lee Van Meter, III (1925–1953) Pilot died in Korean War, son of S.L. Van Meter, Jr.</p><br>
<p>James Albert Varney, Sr. (1910–1985) – Jim Varney&#39;s father</p><br>
<p>Jim Varney (1949–2000) – actor who was best known as Ernest P. Worrell</p><br>
<p>Louise H. Varney (1913–1994) – Jim Varney&#39;s mother</p><br>
<h3>W</h3><br>
<p>Elisha Warfield (1781–1859), physician, academic, Thoroughbred racehorse breeder</p><br>
<p>Ethelbert Dudley Warfield (1861–1936), college president</p><br>
<p>Howard J. Wells (1903–1955), Thoroughbred racehorse trainer, owner, breeder</p><br>
<p>Daniel Carmichal "DC" Wickcliffe (1810–1870) Whig/Democrat, Secretary of State of Kentucky 1862–63, Newspaper owner and editor "Lexington Observer & Reporter" 1838–1865</p><br>
<p>Katharine E. Wilkie (1904–1980) – author</p><br>
<p>Elisha I. Winter (1781–1849) – USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Rev. Louisa Mariah Layman Woosley (1862–1952) – first woman ordained in the Presbyterian and Reformed tradition in 1889 by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.</p><br>
<p>Cave Hill Cemetery is a 296 acre Victorian era National Cemetery and arboretum located at Louisville, Kentucky. Its main entrance is on Baxter Avenue and there is a secondary one on Grinstead Drive. It is the largest cemetery by area and number of burials in Louisville.</p><br>
<p>Cave Hill was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Cave Hill National Cemetery, containing military graves, is also on the National Register, added in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Cave Hill was chartered in 1848 on what was William Johnston&#39;s Cave Hill Farm, then a rural property some distance east of Louisville. Johnston, who died in 1798, had built the first brick house in Louisville on the grounds circa 1788. City officials had purchased part of the land in the 1830s in anticipation of building a railroad through it, and a workhouse was built there. The railroad was built elsewhere, and the land was leased to local farmers.</p><br>
<p>In 1846, Mayor Frederick A. Kaye began investigating the possibility of developing a rural or garden-style cemetery on the grounds, a popular concept at the time. Hartford, Connecticut civil engineer Edmund Francis Lee was hired, who planned a cemetery with winding paths, graves across the tops of hills, and lakes and ponds in the valleys. The Cave Hill Cemetery Co. was chartered in February 1848, and the cemetery was dedicated on July 25, 1848. Reverend Doctor Edward Porter Humphrey delivered the dedicatory address and elaborated on the idea of the garden cemetery, noting, among other things, that "...Reason and taste suggest that should be decorated appropriately by the beautiful productions of our great Creator..."</p><br>
<p>Before the era of large municipal parks, it was common for cities to promote a garden cemetery as a green oasis and recreation destination, and Louisville was no exception. This largely ended with the opening of nearby Cherokee Park in 1892.</p><br>
<p>After administrators sold several acres of land for the burial of Union soldiers during the Civil War, local Confederate supporters purchased nearby land as well. Several deceased patients from the Brown General Hospital and other nearby army medical facilities were interred in Cave Hill Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Johnstons farmhouse (in what is now sections 33 and 34) was converted to the citys pesthouse, and was demolished in 1872. Also in 1872, Beechhurst Sanitarium was built near the pesthouse and the modern Grinstead entrance. Beechurst was torn down in 1936.</p><br>
<p>The entrance lodge and main gates were designed by Louisville architect William H. Reddin in 1880 in the style of Italian Renaissance Revival.</p><br>
<p>The grounds were expanded and remapped in 1888 to their modern size of nearly 300 acre. In the 1980s, razor wire was added to the brick walls surrounding Cave Hill to keep out after-hours visitors.</p><br>
<p>The first scenic overlook for the cemetery, Twin Lakes Scenic Overlook, opened on August 20, 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The signature Baxter Avenue entrance, called the Broadway Entrance by the cemetery, was completed in 1892. The Corinthian-style building includes a 2,000 lb bell in its clock tower. The tower, once the tallest structure for miles, was frequently hit by lightning and last renovated in 2001. The Grinstead Drive entrance was built in 1913.</p><br>
<p>The third public entrance on the residential street of Dearing Court was closed as of 2007. Another public entrance, also no longer in use, was built off Payne Street in 1910, closest to the military sections. There are several service entrances around the perimeter. Other buildings include the stone office building near the lake, and the Rustic Shelter House built in 1892 at a cost of $565.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery contains monuments and graves of three Union generals. The 32nd Indiana Monument, also known as the "August Bloedner Monument", is separately on the National Register.</p><br>
<p>The middle fork of Beargrass Creek runs through Cave Hill, and a source stream flowing into the creek roughly divides the cemetery in new (eastern) and old (western) sections. That stream flows from a spring near the cave that gave the property its name. The cave can be entered for about 30 ft, and then there is a marginal amount of crawl space beyond that, however the cave is officially off limits. There are also five man-made lakes.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery currently features more than 500 species of trees and shrubs, including some two dozen current state champion trees, including both native species such as pignut hickory (Carya glabra) and exotics such as Caucasian wingnut (Pterocarya fraxinifolia). It is well known as an arboretum.</p><br>
<h2>Interments</h2><br>
<p>There were about 120,000 people interred by 2002, with space remaining for 22,000 more graves. Notable among those interred in the cemetery is American Revolutionary War military war officer and founder of Louisville George Rogers Clark (1752–1818).</p><br>
<p>More than 200 Confederate soldiers are buried in Section "O" of the cemetery, with 30–40 buried in a row near the National Cemetery. The original wooden markers in Section "O" were replaced with stone markers in 1880–1881. A number of markers are marked as unknown. Included in the Section "O" burials is a Confederate Brigadier General, Alpheus Baker. There are two other Confederate generals buried in other locations in the cemetery. In the addition to Section "O" (lot 267½) are a number of residents of the Kentucky Confederate Home, who died around the start of the 20th century. The confederate flag flies over the area.</p><br>
<p>Within another USA Soldiers plot in Section E is one British war grave, of a soldier of the Machine Gun Corps, a member of the British Military Mission to the United States, who died in 1918.</p><br>
<p>Portrait painter and cousin of Mark Twain, Mary Ann Xantippe "Tip" Saunders, was interred at Cave Hill Cemetery in 1922. Patty Hill and Mildred J. Hill (sisters), composers of the Happy Birthday song, are interred here. Muhammad Ali, boxing champion born in Louisville, was interred on June 10, 2016. Also interred are the founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken, Colonel Harland Sanders; and Mia Zapata, lead singer of punk band The Gits. Paul Hornung, Heisman trophy winner and Green Bay Packer, was interred in 2020.</p><br>
<p>Cave Hill National Cemetery 2.jpgUnion Monument in Louisville</p><br>
<p>Cave Hill National Cemetery 3.jpgPlaque quoting the poem "Bivouac of the Dead"</p><br>
<p>GRC Gravesite.jpgGeorge Rogers Clark gravestone</p><br>
<p>GRC Gravesite 2.jpgGeorge Rogers Clark gravesite</p><br>
<p>GRC Gravesite M1.jpgGeorge Rogers Clark marker</p><br>
<p>32nd Indiana Monument Louisville.jpgThe 32nd Indiana Monument</p><br>
<h2>Documents</h2><br>
<p>CaveHill1.jpg</p><br>
<p>CaveHill2.jpg</p><br>
<p>CaveHill3.jpg</p><br>
<p>Castle Pinckney is a small masonry fortification constructed by the United States government, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1810. It was used very briefly as a prisoner-of-war camp  and artillery position during the American Civil War. It was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>Located on Shutes Folly, a small island about one mile off the Charleston shore in the harbor, the fort was built over the ruins of an older fortification called "Fort Pinckney". The original log and earthen fort, named after the Revolutionary War hero Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, was built beginning in 1797 and was intended to protect the city from a possible naval attack when war with France seemed imminent. Completed in 1804, it saw no hostilities and was virtually destroyed by a severe hurricane in September of that year. A replacement brick-and-mortar structure called "Castle Pinckney" was erected in 1809&ndash;1810 and was garrisoned throughout the War of 1812, but it saw no action during the two-and-a-half-year conflict. Afterwards, Castle Pinckney was abandoned and fell into disrepair.</p><br>
<p>Two decades later, a sea wall was completed and the fort was re-garrisoned during the Nullification Crisis of 1832, when President Andrew Jackson prepared to collect a controversial tariff using military force if necessary. After that brief period of activity, the fort again fell into disuse and was primarily a storehouse for gunpowder and other military supplies.</p><br>
<p>By the late 1850s, Castle Pinckney was part of a network of defensive positions in the harbor, which included the larger and more strategically placed Forts Sumter and Moultrie, and other, smaller earthworks and fortifications. In 1860, Castle Pinckney&#39;s armament consisted of fourteen 24-pounders, four 42-pounders, four 8-inch howitzers, one 10-inch and one 8-inch mortar, and four light field pieces to protect its flanks.</p><br>
<h2>American Civil War</h2><br>
<p>On December 27, 1860, one week after South Carolina seceded from the Union, the fort was surrendered to South Carolina (S.C.) militia by its small USA Army garrison, which retired to Fort Sumter to join Major Robert Anderson. Castle Pinckney became the first Federal military installation seized forcefully by a Southern state government. Three days later, the Union&#39;s Charleston Arsenal joined Castle Pinckney in falling to S.C. forces. After the subsequent Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, the Charleston Zouave Cadets garrisoned Castle Pinckney.</p><br>
<p>One hundred and fifty-four Union Army prisoners of war (120 enlisted, 34 officers) captured during the First Battle of Bull Run and previously incarcerated at Ligon&#39;s Prison arrived at Charleston on September 10, 1861, and were kept at the Charleston City Jail until the lower casemates of Castle Pinckney were converted into cells. According to the Charleston Mercury, Richmond officials had selected "chiefly from among those who have evidenced the most insolent and insubordinate disposition." On September 18, prisoners from the 11th NY Fire Zouaves, 69th NY ("Irish") Regiment, 79th NY Regiment, and 8th Michigan Infantry were transferred to Castle Pinckney. They were allowed to wander during the day and were confined to cells only at night.</p><br>
<p>The Castle quickly proved to be too small and inadequate, however, for permanent confinement; the prisoners were transferred back to the Charleston City Jail on October 31, 1861, after only six weeks. After the prisoners were removed, the fort was strengthened with earthen embankments and with additional mortars and Columbiads on the barbette tier. On December 12, the prisoners were transferred back to the island, following a fire which had burned a large section of Charleston and damaged the jail. They remained for just over a week with many sleeping on the inner parade ground before being transferred.</p><br>
<h2>Post Civil War and disuse</h2><br>
<p>After the Civil War, the fort was modernized for possible use during the Spanish–American War, but again it was not needed. Some sources suggest that the fort never fired a single hostile shot during its existence. Parts of the old brick walls and casements were dismantled in 1890, to make way for a harbor lighthouse, which operated into the 20th century. There was local opposition to the plans for the lighthouse; a movement had been undertaken to construct a retirement home for servicemen on the island instead. Castle Pinckney was declared a USA National Monument in 1924 by Presidential proclamation. In 1951, Congress passed a bill to abolish Castle Pinckney National Monument and transferred it back to USA Army Corps of Engineers. The island became excess property subject to sale by the Federal government in March 1956.</p><br>
<p>The island was acquired by the State Ports Commission as a spoil area in 1958 for $12,000, but the Commission investigated improving part of the land and using it as a historic destination. Plans for the use of the island as a spoil area proved impractical, and no successful plans for the use of the island as a tourist destination were created by the Commission. The Commission attempted to return the island to the Federal government, but the government declined, citing the cost of operations as outweighing the historical value of the island. The Commission received offers to buy the island for uses including a private residence, a nightclub, and a restaurant; but the agency refused all of them. A fire on December 22, 1967, destroyed an abandoned house on the island, but a warehouse was saved.</p><br>
<p>A local Sons of Confederate Veterans fraternal post took over management and care of the island in the late 1960s, attempting to preserve it and establish a museum. Castle Pinckney was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. Eventually, unable to raise the needed funds, the S.C.V. allowed the fort to revert to state ownership. Castle Pinckney has undergone some limited restoration efforts. With its location on an isolated shoal in the middle of the harbor, access is difficult; maintenance is nearly impossible. It is gradually being reclaimed by nature.</p><br>
<p>James Madison&#39;s Montpelier, located in Orange County, Virginia, was the plantation house of the Madison family, including Founding Father and fourth president of the United States James Madison and his wife, Dolley. The 2,650 acre property is open seven days a week.</p><br>
<p>Montpelier was declared a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. It was included in the Madison-Barbour Rural Historic District in 1991. In 1983, the last private owner of Montpelier, Marion duPont Scott, bequeathed the estate to the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>The National Trust for Historic Preservation (NTHP) has owned and operated the estate since 1984. In 2000, The Montpelier Foundation formed with the goal of transforming James Madison&#39;s historic estate into a dynamic cultural institution. From 2003 to 2008 the NTHP carried out a major restoration, in part to return the mansion to its original size of 22 rooms as it was during the years when it was occupied by James and Dolley Madison. Extensive interior and exterior work was done during the restoration.</p><br>
<p>Archeological investigations in the 21st century revealed new information about African-American life at the plantation, and a gift from philanthropist David Rubenstein enabled the National Trust to restore the slave quarters in the South Yard and open a slavery exhibition, The Mere Distinction of Colour, in 2017. In June 2021, the Montpelier Foundation approved bylaws to share in governance of the estate with the Montpelier Descendants Committee, composed of descendants of those enslaved at the estate. After some controversy, the Montpelier Descendants Committee achieved parity within the Foundation, holding 14 of 25 seats on the board as of May 2022, including the chair.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The Family of Madison</h3><br>
<p>In 1723, James Madison&#39;s grandfather, Ambrose Madison, and his brother-in-law, Thomas Chew, received a patent for 4,675 acre of land in the Piedmont of Virginia. Ambrose, his wife Frances Madison, and their three children moved to the plantation in 1732, naming it Mount Pleasant. (Archaeologists have located this first site near the Madison Family Cemetery.) Ambrose died six months later; according to court records, he was poisoned by three enslaved Africans. At the time, Ambrose Madison held 29 slaves and close to 4,000 acre. After his death, Frances managed the estate with the help of their son, Colonel James Madison Sr.</p><br>
<p>Madison Sr. expanded the plantation to include building services and blacksmithing in the 1740s, and bought additional slaves to cultivate tobacco and other crops. He married Nelly Conway Madison (1731–1829) and had 12 children.</p><br>
<p>James Madison Sr.s first-born son, also named James, was born on March 16, 1751, at Belle Grove, his mothers family estate in Port Conway, where she had returned for his birth. James Madison spent his early years at Mount Pleasant.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1760s, Madison Sr. built a new house half a mile away, which structure forms the heart of the main house at Montpelier today. Built around 1764, it has two stories of brick laid in a Flemish bond pattern, and a low, hipped roof with chimney stacks at both ends. His son James Madison later stated that he remembered helping move furniture to the new home. The building of Montpelier represents Phase 1 (1764–1797) of the construction. Upon completion, the Madisons owned one of the largest brick dwellings in Orange County.</p><br>
<p>Phase 2 (1797–1800) of construction began in 1797, after son James returned to Montpelier with his new wife Dolley Madison. He was then 39 and she was a young widow with a child. At this time Madison added a thirty-foot extension and a Tuscan portico to the house. Madison&#39;s widowed mother, Nelly, still resided in the house following the death of her husband, James Sr., in 1801.</p><br>
<p>In the last period of construction, Phase 3 (1809–1812), Madison had a large drawing room added, as well as one-story wings at each end of the house; these provided space for the separate household of the newlyweds James and Dolley Madison. After his second term as president, in 1817 Madison retired there full-time with his wife Dolley.</p><br>
<p>James Madison died in 1836 and is buried in the family cemetery at Montpelier. His widow Dolley Madison moved back to Washington, D.C., in 1837 after his death. In 1844 she sold the plantation to Henry W. Moncure. After Dolley Madison died in 1849, she was buried in Washington, D.C., and later re-interred at Montpelier near her husband James.</p><br>
<p>After Dolley Madison sold the estate to Henry W. Moncure in 1844, the property was held by six successive owners before the du Ponts bought Montpelier in 1901. The various owners and the dates associated with the site include: Benjamin Thornton (1848–1854), William H. Macfarland (1854–1855), Alfred V. Scott (1855–1857), Thomas J. Carson and Frank Carson (1857–1881), Louis F. Detrick and William L. Bradley (1881–1900) and Charles King Lennig (1900).</p><br>
<h3>The name Montpelier</h3><br>
<p>The origins of the name Montpelier are uncertain, but the first recorded use of the name comes from a 1781 James Madison letter. Madison personally liked the French spelling of the name Montpellier. The city of Montpellier, France, was a famous resort. Clues from letters and visitor descriptions suggest these origins of the plantation&#39;s name.</p><br>
<h3>Slavery at Montpelier</h3><br>
<p>The work of Montpelier was done primarily by its about 100 enslaved African people during James Madison&#39;s tenure as owner. Slaves served in a variety of roles: field workers, domestic servants in charge of cleaning, cooking, and care of clothing; and as artisans for the mill, forge, wheelwright, and other carpentry and woodworking. During the time that the Madisons owned the estate, "five, six, and possibly seven generations of African Americans were born into slavery at Montpelier."</p><br>
<p>The most well-known slave from Montpelier was Paul Jennings (1799-1874), Madison&#39;s body servant from 1817 to 1835. When Jennings went to the White House at age 10, he served at table and did other work. Senator Daniel Webster purchased Jennings from the widowed Dolley Madison in 1845, and gave him his freedom. Jennings continued to live in Washington, DC, where he worked as a laborer at the federal Pension Bureau and became a homeowner.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, Jennings helped plan the largest slave escape in United States history, as 77 slaves from the Washington, DC area took to The Pearl, a schooner, intending to sail up the Chesapeake Bay to a free state. They were captured and most were sold to the Deep South. Jennings was noted for his reminiscences of Madison, A Colored Man&#39;s Reminiscences of James Madison (1865), which is considered the first White House memoir.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological research and documentary analysis has revealed much about the life of Montpelier-born slave, Catherine Taylor (ca. 1820 – after 1889). Catherine married Ralph Taylor, a house slave, and had four children with him. When Dolley Madison moved to Washington, D.C., in the years after James Madison&#39;s death, Ralph was chosen to accompany her to serve her in the capital. Dolley kept Catherine at Montpelier for several months after she brought Ralph to D.C., and then brought Catherine to D.C. later</p><br>
<p>Dolley Madison transferred (or deeded), most of the enslaved people to her son, John Payne Todd. He stipulated in his will that upon his death, the slaves would be manumitted. However, due to legal and financial complications after Todd&#39;s death, the slaves were not manumitted. The Taylors petitioned James C. Maguire, the administrator of the estate, for their freedom. After being officially freed in 1853, they chose to live in Washington, which had a large free black community and opportunities for varied work.</p><br>
<p>The Montpelier staff continues to research the enslaved community by a variety of methods: studying historical documents such as court records and autobiographies, conducting archaeological excavations, contacting current descendants, and document the contributions and sacrifices of the enslaved community.</p><br>
<h3>The duPont family</h3><br>
<p>After some renovations in the later 19th century (c. 1855 and c. 1880), the house was acquired in 1901 by William and Annie Rogers duPont, of the duPont family. A horse enthusiast, William duPont built barns, stables, and other buildings for equestrian use. The duPonts were among several wealthy families in the Upper South who were influential in the development of Thoroughbred horse racing in the United States. The duPont family also added a Hodgson House to the property. These were known as "Americas First Organized Prefabricated House Manufacturer before Aladdin, Sears, and Montgomery Ward", emphasizing that the homes could technically be built in a day. Still located on Montpeliers property, it is now known as the "Bassett House."</p><br>
<p>William and Annie had a daughter, Marion duPont, and a son William duPont Jr. Upon William duPont Sr.s death in 1928, William duPont Jr. inherited the familys Bellevue estate in Delaware, whereupon he had the estates mansion converted into a replica of Montpelier (now preserved as a state park), and Marion inherited the Montpelier estate. Marion preserved much of the core of the Madison home, gardens, and grounds as a legacy for all Americans. After her fathers death, Marion made only one change to the house; she remodeled her parents music room in the latest Art Deco style, using modern and innovative materials such as laminated plywood, chrome, glass block, and plate glass mirrors. A weather vane was installed on the ceiling, which allowed wind direction to direct the hounds for fox hunting. An exact replica of the Art Deco room can be seen in the DuPont Gallery, in the Visitors Center at Montpelier. Prior to her parents moving into the property, they enlarged the house considerably, adding wings that more than doubled the number of rooms to 55. Her parents also had the brick covered with a stucco exterior for a lighter look.</p><br>
<p>In 1934, Marion and her brother William founded the Montpelier Hunt Races, to be held on the grounds. Natural hedges were used as jumps for the steeplechase. The races continue to be held annually, the first Saturday each November.</p><br>
<p>Marion duPont Scott died in 1983 and bequeathed the property to the National Trust for Historic Preservation, with $10 million (~$ in ) as an endowment to buy and maintain it. Her father&#39;s will had stated that if she died childless, the property would go to her brother William duPont Jr. and his children. As he had died in 1965, his five children legally inherited the property. In 1984, the heirs of Marion duPont Scott, in accordance with her wishes, transferred ownership of Montpelier to the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<h2>National Trust Property</h2><br>
<p>Since the National Trust for Historic Preservation took ownership in 1984, the organization has worked to restore Montpelier to the Madison era. It has paid tribute to Marion duPont Scotts influence by retaining one of her favorite rooms in the newly renovated and expanded Visitors Center, along with the annual Montpelier Hunt Races.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, the National Trust established Montpelier as a co-stewardship property, administered by The Montpelier Foundation.</p><br>
<p>The Robert H. Smith Center for the Constitution provided an Education Center for students and teachers. It sponsors the "We the People" program to promote the understanding of civics for upper elementary and secondary students, along with national and state programs for teachers, such as the National Advanced Content Seminars, which focuses on historical content and teaching methods.</p><br>
<p>In conjunction with the James Madison University Field School, Montpelier has been the site of annual, seasonal archeological excavations from April to November. Under a four-year collaborative research grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, four quarters have been excavated related to the lives of enslaved African Americans: including the Stable Quarter (2009), South and Kitchen Yards (2011), Tobacco Barn Quarter (2012), and Field Quarter (2013). The excavations have revealed early structures in those areas, including possible slave quarters, as well as a variety of artifacts dating to the Madison residency and their slaves. The artifacts are helping researchers form a much broader and deeper picture of the lives of the slaves at Montpelier. "The four residential locations provide a unique opportunity to compare and contrast the conditions of chattel slavery of the period. Differences and similarities between these locations – particularly architectural styles and household goods such as ceramics, glassware, and clothing items – reflect the relationship of individual households to each other, the community to which they belong, their relationship to the overarching plantation complex, and regional patterns of both market access and cultural traditions.</p><br>
<p>From 2003 to 2008 the National Trust carried out a $25 million restoration to return the mansion to its 1820 state; it is again less than half the size of the expanded residence created by the DuPont family. The National Trust is conducting a search for furnishings either original to the property or of its era.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>A $25 million restoration project launched in October 2003 was completed on Constitution Day, September 17, 2008. A Restoration Celebration was held with major funding by National Trust Community Investment Corporation. The restoration returned Montpelier to its 1820 appearance: it demolished additions made to the house by the duPont family, removed the stucco exterior to reveal the original brick, restored the original brick exterior, and reconstructed the houses interior as it appeared during Madisons tenure as owner. Authentic materials were used in the restoration, including horsehair plaster, and paint containing linseed oil and chalk. The Collections staff and archaeologists are working to understand the decorations of each room and recreate room settings as closely as possible to what the Madisons knew.</p><br>
<p>A wing in the visitors&#39; center has been dedicated to the duPont family. It includes a restored art deco Red Room from the Marion duPont Scott era, moved from the mansion and permanently installed here.</p><br>
<h3>The Mere Distinction of Colour</h3><br>
<p>In 2017, Montpelier added to its existing interpretations of slavery – including the Gilmore Cabin and the Jim Crow–era Train Station, both of which are permanent installations – with the opening of the exhibition, The Mere Distinction of Colour. This exhibition, funded by a donation from philanthropist David Rubenstein, explores the history and legacies of American slavery both at Montpelier and nationwide. The Mere Distinction of Colour spans the cellars of the Madison house, the south cellar exploring the Montpelier slavery story, and the north cellar analyzing the economics and legacies of slavery. The exhibition is the culmination of decades of archaeological and documentary research conducted by Montpelier staff and advisors.</p><br>
<p>One of the unique features of this exhibition is that it was guided by living descendants of the slaves who once inhabited Montpelier and the surrounding area. Montpelier has an active descendant community, some of whom have genealogical proof of their ancestry, and others who are connected through oral histories that have been passed down through generations.</p><br>
<p>The South Cellar details the Montpelier story of slavery, complete with the voices of descendants and the names of everyone known to be enslaved on the property throughout the Madison ownership. The North Cellar analyses the national slave narrative, talking about how slavery become institutionalized in American society and how profitable the slave trade was for all of the colonies, not exclusively the south.</p><br>
<p>The unguided Mere Distinction of Colour installation is free with the purchase of any tour ticket, and is open to the public Thursday to Monday.</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>Montpelier is open to visitors Thursday to Monday except Thanksgiving and Christmas, with the following hours: January – March: 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m, April – October: 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m., November – December: 9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.</p><br>
<p>Montpelier includes the a Hands-on-Restoration-Tent open from April–October; Hands-on-Archaeology Lab and Kid-Sized Archaeology open daily; Hands-on-Cooking offered April–October; Civil War and Gilmore Farm Trail open daily; and, the Archaeology Dig open April–October.</p><br>
<p>Visitors can also explore over eight miles of walking trails that wind through horse pastures, wildflower meadows, and forests, including the 197 acre old-growth Montpelier Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Annual events</h2><br>
<p>Montpelier is the site of many annual events. Three particularly draw large crowds: the Montpelier Hunt Races, Wine Festival, and the Fiber Festival.</p><br>
<p>The annual Montpelier Hunt Races, an autumn steeplechase event, were started by Marion duPont Scott and her brother William duPont Jr. in 1934. The races are held the first Saturday in November. Montpelier has one of the few steeplechase tracks in the country that use traditional hedgerows for jumps. Montpelier hosts seven races at this event. Guests may watch the races directly at the rail for a close experience.</p><br>
<p>The Montpelier Wine Festival showcases distinctive arts and crafts, specialty food vendors, local agricultural products, and Virginia wine from approximately 25 different wineries in the state.</p><br>
<p>The Fall Fiber Festival is held each October and is a popular regional event. The event showcases every aspect of textile manufacturing, from the production of wool to the finished product. Events include sheep shearing, craft demos, and a host of other activities. The most popular feature of the Fall Fiber Festival is the Sheep Dog Trials.</p><br>
<p>Other events include: summer programs for children, such as the "Mud Camp," a barbecue held in the summer with local barbecue cuisine, Archaeology Expeditions, civil war demonstrations, and, in December, a candlelight tour of Montpelier in the evening.</p><br>
<h2>Montpelier Forest</h2><br>
<p>A 197 acre forest on the property known as the Montpelier Forest (also known as the Landmark Forest) was designated as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service in 1987. The forest was recognized as being one of the best examples of a mature Piedmont forest dominated by tulip poplar and spicebush; various species of oak and hickory are also common in the forest. The relatively undisturbed forest contains several trees up to 300 years old. Ideal growing conditions at the site, including fertile soils, allow for the trees to attain great size; tulip poplars attain heights of up to 120 ft by the time they reach 50 years of age, and some trees have been measured to have diameters of up to 5 ft.</p><br>
<h2>In Literature</h2><br>
<p>This property is the subject of Lydia Sigourney&#39;s poem Montpelier, published in her Scenes in my Native Land, 1845 with accompanying descriptive text.</p><br>
<p>George Rogers Clark National Historical Park, located in Vincennes, Indiana, on the banks of the Wabash River at what is believed to be the site of Fort Sackville, is a United States National Historical Park. President Calvin Coolidge authorized a classical memorial and President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated the completed structure in 1936.</p><br>
<p>On February 25, 1779, Lieutenant Colonel George Rogers Clark, older brother of William Clark, led the capture of Fort Sackville and British Lt. Governor Henry Hamilton as part of the Illinois Campaign, which lasted from 1778 to 1779. The march of Clark&#39;s men from Kaskaskia on the Mississippi River in mid-winter and the subsequent victory over the British remains one of the most memorable feats of the American Revolution.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, Indiana transferred the site to the National Park Service. Adjacent to the memorial is a visitor center which presents interpretive programs and displays. The center is situated on South 2nd Street in Vincennes. The site is located in the Vincennes Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The memorial is placed at the believed site of Fort Sackville; no archeological evidence has shown the exact location, but it is undoubtedly within the parks boundaries. The episode being commemorated marked the finest moment in General George Rogers Clarks career. He was sent by the state of Virginia to protect its interest in the Old Northwest. His 1778–1779 campaign included the founding of Louisville, Kentucky and the capture of British forts in the lower Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Forces under Clark&#39;s command had captured Fort Sackville months before, but when notified that British forces under Henry Hamilton had retaken the fort, Clark led a desperate march to retake the fort again for the American cause, succeeding on February 25, 1779. This led to the newly formed United States claiming control of what would become the states of Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.</p><br>
<p>As Vincennes grew in the 1800s, it overran the site of Fort Sackville and its boundaries were lost. In 1905, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed a stone marker on what they believed was the location of the fort. In 1929, local residents made a major effort to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Clarks campaign. The state of Indiana chose to build a memorial to General Clarks triumph in the 1930s, with the assistance of the United States government; the various funds amounted to $2.5 million. The memorial was designed by New York architect Frederic Charles Hirons and dedicated June 14, 1936, by President Franklin Roosevelt. Though the National Park Service in 1976 called the finished memorial the "last major Classical style memorial" constructed in the United States, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt at the American Museum of Natural History by John Russell Pope was also completed in 1936, and Pope&#39;s Jefferson Memorial in Washington, D.C. was completed 1939–1943, are of the same era.</p><br>
<h2>Structures</h2><br>
<p>The memorial building is a circular granite structure surrounded by sixteen granite fluted Greek Doric columns in a peripteral colonnade, capped with a saucer dome of glass panels and resting on a stylobate. The north and east corners have restrooms and various maintenance rooms. Except for the maintenance rooms, these feature plastered walls and ceilings, marble wainscoting, and terrazzo flooring. Visitors enter the memorial by climbing thirty granite steps in the northwest corner. The basement is unfinished, with fluorescent lighting revealing a ceiling and walls of exposed concrete, and a dirt floor.</p><br>
<p>Other prominent features in the park include John Angels granite statue of Francis Vigo, a 4 by monument overlooking the Wabash River erected in 1934 that honors the Italian-American merchant who assisted General Clark. The adjacent grounds of the Basilica of St. Francis Xavier hold a 1934 bronze statue by Albin Polasek honoring Father Pierre Gibault, another figure in the Revolutionary War. Raoul Josset designed the Lincoln Memorial Bridge across the Wabash River to complement the memorial aesthetically. It includes relief carvings designed by a monument by Nellie Walker on the Illinois side of the bridge and celebrates the migration of Abraham Lincoln. A concrete floodwall that protects the memorial and Vincennes from Wabash flooding is also designed in a complementary Classical style. The grounds also hold a memorial to the soldiers from Knox County who served in World War I, a marker denoting where Clarks headquarters probably stood during his siege of Fort Sackville, and the original Daughters of the American Revolution memorial, which has moved several times due to construction of the main memorial. Sculptor Joseph Kiselewski created a limestone bas relief for what is now the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park in Vincennes, Indiana in 1930 to 1934. It depicts a young George Rogers Clark receiving his orders to attack the British outposts on the Western frontier from Patrick Henry, according to the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Murals</h2><br>
<p>Muralist Ezra Winter executed a series of seven murals for the building.</p><br>
<h2>Purpose and significance</h2><br>
<p>The park was authorized by the Act of July 23, 1966 (PL 89-517). This law (Appendix A) contains three provisions. The first authorized the Secretary of the Interior to accept from the State of Indiana, the donation of the Clark Memorial and surrounding grounds for a national park. This was accomplished within one year of the law&#39;s enactment. The second provision permits the Secretary to enter into cooperative agreements with the owners of other historic properties in Vincennes which are associated with George Rogers Clark and the Northwest Territory. Such properties would become part of the park, and the Secretary could assist in their preservation, renewal and interpretation. The third provision requires the Secretary to administer, protect, develop and maintain the park in accordance with the provisions of the act of August 25, 1916, which established the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>George Rogers Clark NHP was established to commemorate the accomplishments of George Rogers Clark and the expansion of the United States into the Northwest Territory; to commemorate this story and its significance to the American people; and to cooperate in the preservation, renewal and interpretation of the sites and structures in Vincennes associated with this story. The park also commemorates the actions of Father Pierre Gibault and Francis Vigo who sided with Clark against the British.</p><br>
<p>The park is located on the site of Fort Sackville which Clark captured from the British during the American Revolution on February 25, 1779. The victory extended American land claims in the Ohio Valley and contributed to the United States acquisition of the Northwest Territory in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. No structures dating from the Revolution exist in the park today.</p><br>
<p>The historical theme represented by George Rogers Clark NHP is the "Revolution, War in the Frontier," according to 1987 History and Prehistory in the National Park System and the National Historic Landmarks Program.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>August 9, 2008, George Rogers Clark National Historical Park closed for 13 months to complete a three-million-dollar renovation by Frontier Waterproofing, Inc out of Denton, Texas. Park Superintendent Dale Phillips said, "This is a once-in-a-lifetime restoration project, and is critically needed for the long-term preservation of the Clark Memorial". The main goal was to fix the drainage of the terrace, which has leaked since the 1930s, and renovate the access steps. The monument reopened September 24, 2009, and was rededicated on October 3, 2009. The 2009 Spirit of Vincennes Rendezvous was not impacted by the renovation.</p><br>
<p>Work during the renovation included demolition and installation of new parapets and rustications; repair of wall cracks; removal, temporary storage, and numbering of approximately 1,000 large granite paving stones; installation of new waterproofing on the existing concrete structural deck of the plaza and the monuments stylobate; cleaning and repair of the granite stone, steps, and veneer; installation of a new exposed aggregate concrete walking surface around the Monument plaza; and replacing the existing sprinkler system and landscaping elements. This repaired problems first identified in a 1939 structural inspection.</p><br>
<p>George Rogers Clark National Historical Park was honored on an America the Beautiful Quarter representing Indiana in 2017.</p><br>
<p>Kalaupapa National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located in Kalaupapa, Hawaii, on the island of Molokai. Coterminous with the boundaries of Kalawao County and primarily on Kalaupapa peninsula, it was established by Congress in 1980 to expand upon the earlier National Historic Landmark site of the Kalaupapa Leper Settlement. It is administered by the National Park Service. Its goal is to preserve the cultural and physical settings of the two leper colonies on the island of Molokai, which operated from 1866 to 1969 and had a total of 8500 residents over the decades.</p><br>
<p>More than 7300 people live on the remainder of the island, which was a site of cattle ranching and pineapple production for decades. Much of these lands were purchased and controlled by the owners and developers of Molokai Ranch. This part of the island is also a tourist destination.</p><br>
<h2>History of Kalaupapa peninsula</h2><br>
<p>Archeological evidence has revealed human habitation by indigenous peoples for more than 900 years before European contact. The peninsula has house sites, cultivated taro fields and irrigation systems, stone walls, and temples (heiau), all constructed by ancient residents. "Historical accounts from the early to mid-1800s speak of populations of 1,000 to 2,700 people living on the peninsula, in the valleys, and in the villages" but by 1853, there were only about 140 people remaining after epidemics of Eurasian diseases.</p><br>
<h3>History of the Kalaupapa leprosy settlements (1865 – present)</h3><br>
<p>In 1865 the Kingdom legislature passed a law to try to prevent transmission of leprosy, now known as Hansen&#39;s disease after the scientist who discovered the bacterium. The disease had been introduced to the islands about 1830 by foreign workers. At the time it was incurable. Sugar planters had brought pressure on the government as they were worried about the labor supply.</p><br>
<p>The government arranged for Native Hawaiian inhabitants to be removed from the Kalaupapa to prepare for its development as an isolation settlement for persons with severe leprosy. This cut off the island people&#39;s cultural ties and associations with the āina (land), which had been established for centuries.</p><br>
<p>Bringing patients to the isolation settlements, first at Kalawao and then at Kalaupapa, led to broader dislocations across Hawaiian society. In the long term many families were affected and some divided when a member contracted leprosy. The governments of the Kingdom, and subsequently, the Territory and State of Hawaii tried to control leprosy (also known as Hansen&#39;s disease), a much feared illness, by relocating patients with severe symptoms to the isolated peninsula. Other patients were treated in quarantine at facilities on the main islands; but families were still broken up in the process.</p><br>
<p>The first settlement was started on the windward side at Kalawao, followed by one at Kalaupapa. In 1890 a total of 1100 persons with leprosy were living here, the peak of resident population. In those years, they generally had to leave family behind on other islands. The effects of both the broken connections with the āina and of family members "lost" to Kalaupapa are still felt in Hawaii today.</p><br>
<p>The settlements were administered by the Board of Health, with local financial control held by Rudolph Meyer, a German immigrant who worked for the Molokaʻi Ranch and lived on the island. Local supervision for decades was by superintendents of Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian ancestry, some appointed from among the patients or family members with persons with leprosy.</p><br>
<p>Belgian missionary priests from the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary were among those who cared for persons with leprosy on Molokai. The most well-known was Belgian-born Father Damien, who served there from 1873 to his death in 1889. For his charity he was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as a saint in 2009, the 10th person recognized in what is now the United States. Among other missionaries and caregivers, was Mother Marianne Cope, a nun and administrator of St. Joseph&#39;s Hospital in Syracuse, New York. As the General Minister of the Sisters of St. Francis of Syracuse, she brought six sisters with her to the islands to aid in the care of persons with leprosy and develop the medical facilities. Mother Marianne and sisters of her community developed hospitals, homes and schools on the islands of Oʻahu and Maui from 1883 to 1888, at which time they traveled to Kalaupapa where she lived and worked there until her death in 1918. In 2012 she was canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church. Also serving in the colony was Brother Joseph Dutton, who went to Molokaʻi in 1886 to aid the dying Father Damien.</p><br>
<p>The Congregation of the Sacred Hearts continued to have brothers who devoted their lives to work on Molokaʻi and assist the residents. From the late 20th century, recent figures included Henri Systermans and Fr. Joseph Hendricks, whose death in November 2008 marked the end of this 140-year-old tradition. Since St. Marianne arrived in 1888, sixty-five Sisters of St. Francis have maintained a continuous presence in the settlement. There are, established by Mother Marianne in 1888 as the Charles R. Bishop Home for Unprotected Leper Girls and Women to care for those she deemed the most vulnerable of the population.</p><br>
<p>Hansens disease, found in 1873 to be caused by a bacterium, has been curable since the 1940s with the use of modern antibiotics. There are no active cases of Hansens disease among residents of the Kalaupapa settlement or on the island of Molokai. After the management of the settlement was turned over to the National Park Service, residents of the former colony were allowed to stay if they chose to do so. They and their descendant families who wish to continue to live in the neighborhood of housing maintained on the peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Representation in popular culture</h2><br>
<p>After being given a high award by the Kingdom of Hawaii, Belgian missionary-priest Father Damien attracted considerable publicity to the leper colony in the late 19th century; his story was recounted in popular culture and literature.</p><br>
<p>Robert Louis Stevenson, who suffered from tuberculosis, then also incurable, visited the Molokai leper colony after Father Damiens death in 1889. He was moved by Damiens care for patients and described the settlement as a "prison fortified by nature." 2000-foot-high mountains cut off the settlement from the rest of the island. He published a 6,000-word open letter praising Father Damien&#39;s work. Robert Louis Stevenson was inspired by Mother Marianne and the girls of the Bishop Home. He taught the girls croquet, sent a piano as a gift and wrote a poem to Mother Marianne and sisters. Both a letter about the girls and the poem are published in "The Life of Robert Louis Stevenson" by Graham Balfour.</p><br>
<p>Jack London visited in 1908 and wrote the short stories, "Lepers of Molokai" and "Koolau the Leper" in response. The American author Jack London also wrote about his visit to the colony and the people he met there in his sailing memoir, The Cruise of the Snark (1911).</p><br>
<p>James Michener&#39;s 1959 novel Hawaii describes life in the colony in the difficult early times.</p><br>
<p>The 1999 movie Molokai, featuring Peter O&#39;Toole and Kris Kristofferson, features the life of Father Damien and his work among persons with leprosy.</p><br>
<p>Alan Brennert&#39;s 2003 novel Molokaʻi recounts some of the history of the Kalaupapa leprosy settlement through the eyes of fictional character, Rachel Kalama, exiled there at age 8</p><br>
<p>The colony was used as a location for a Hawaii Five-0 investigation into a murder in the episode "Kai Paʻani Nui" (Season 7, Episode 15).</p><br>
<h2>Park description</h2><br>
<p>Kalaupapa National Historical Park, established in 1980, preserves the physical settings of the historic Hansens disease settlements of Kalawao and Kalaupapa. The community of Kalaupapa, on the leeward side of Kalaupapa Peninsula, is still home for a few elderly surviving former Hansens disease patients. Some were disfigured by the disease before being cured and wanted to continue refuge here. They have shared their memories and experiences of their ordeals and of life on the island.</p><br>
<p>Surviving structures at Kalawao, on the windward side of the peninsula, are the Protestant church of Siloama, established in 1866, and Saint Philomena Catholic Church, which is associated with the work of St. Father Damien.</p><br>
<p>Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located in the Kona District on the Big island of Hawaii in the USA state of Hawaii. It includes the National Historic Landmarked archaeological site known as the Honokōhau Settlement. The park was established on November 10, 1978, for the preservation, protection and interpretation of traditional native Hawaiian activities and culture.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Kaloko and Honokōhau are the names of two of the four different ahupuaa, or traditional mountain-to-sea land divisions encompassed by the park. Although in ancient times this arid area of lava rock was called kekaha aole wai (lands without water), the abundant sea life attracted settlement for hundreds of years.</p><br>
<h3>Kaloko</h3><br>
<p>Kaloko (meaning "the pond" in the Hawaiian language) is a site of fishponds used in ancient Hawaii is on the North end of the park.</p><br>
<p>The first reference to the pond comes from the story of Kamalalawalu, about 300 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The kuapā (seawall) is over 30 feet wide and 6 feet high, stretching for 750 feet. Constructed by hand without mortar, the angle and gaps between the stones deflected the surf better than many modern concrete seawalls.</p><br>
<p>Aimakapā fishpond is an important wetland area protecting native birds including the koloa maoli (Hawaiian duck, Anas wyvilliana), alae keokeo (Hawaiian coot, Fulica alai), āeo (Hawaiian stilt, Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), aukuu (black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax), among others.</p><br>
<p>The area is currently under reforestation, after the removal of non-native invasive plants.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the Register of Historic Places in 1978.</p><br>
<h3>Honokōhau</h3><br>
<p>Honokōhau means "bay drawing dew" and refers to the ancient settlement</p><br>
<p>on the south part of the park.</p><br>
<p>This area can be reached via trails from the park visitor center, or from the small boat harbor access road on Kealakehe Parkway.</p><br>
<p>Features include loko ia (Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture fishponds), kahua (house site platforms), kii pōhaku (petroglyphs), hōlua (stone slides) and heiau (religious sites).</p><br>
<p>The Aiopio Fishtrap is a 1.7 acre pond, with a stone wall forming an artificial enclosure along the naturally curved shoreline of a bay.</p><br>
<p>Small openings allowed young fish to enter from the sea, but as they grew larger (or at low tide) they were easily caught with nets inside the trap as needed.</p><br>
<p>It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Several restored trails include about one mile of the Māmalahoa Trail.</p><br>
<p>It was built in the mid-19th century, and evolved over the years into the Hawaii Belt Road which encircles the entire island.</p><br>
<p>The coastal trail is part of the Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail.</p><br>
<p>The Honokōhau boat harbor provides a launching area for traditional canoes, fishing boats, Scuba diving and snorkeling tours of the area.</p><br>
<p>Keweenaw National Historical Park is a unit of the USA National Park Service. Established in 1992, the park celebrates the life and history of the Keweenaw Peninsula in the Upper Peninsula of the USA state of Michigan. It is a federal-local cooperative park made up of two primary units, the Calumet Unit and the Quincy Unit, and almost two dozen cooperating "Heritage Sites" located on federal, state, and privately owned land in and around the Keweenaw Peninsula. The National Park Service owns approximately 1,700 acre in the Calumet and Quincy Units. Units are located in Baraga, Houghton, Keweenaw, and Ontonagon counties.</p><br>
<p>The Congressional legislation establishing the Park stated, among other things, that:</p><br>
<p>(1) The oldest and largest lava flow known on Earth is located on the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan. This volcanic activity produced the only place on Earth where large scale economically recoverable 97 percent pure native copper is found.</p><br>
<p>(2) The Keweenaw Peninsula is the only site in the country where prehistoric aboriginal mining of copper occurred. Artifacts made from this copper by these ancient Indians were traded as far south as present day Alabama.</p><br>
<h2>Copper heritage</h2><br>
<p>The Keweenaw Peninsula is the site of the most extensive known deposits of native copper in the world. Occurring here in relatively pure form, the red metal could be broken out of the rock and worked to make a wide variety of products, from jewelry and tools by its earliest miners to coins and electric wire by its final generations. Keweenaw copper was mined for approximately 7,000 years, from 5000 BCE until 1968. During the period for which records were kept, 1840–1968, more than 11 billion pounds (5 million metric tons) of copper were mined here. During the peak production years of World War I, 1916–1917, the annual copper yield reached a maximum of 270 million pounds (125,000 t).</p><br>
<p>"(7) The entire picture of copper mining on Michigan&#39;s Keweenaw Peninsula is best represented by three components: the Village of Calumet, the former Calumet and Hecla Mining Company properties (including the Osceola #13 mine complex), and the former Quincy Mining Company properties. The Village of Calumet best represents the social, ethnic and commercial themes. Extant Calumet and Hecla buildings best depict corporate paternalism and power, and the themes of extraction and processing are best represented by extant structures of the Quincy Mining Company."</p><br>
<h2>Ethnic heritage</h2><br>
<p>Many ethnic groups contributed to the heritage of the Keweenaw National Historical Park. Throughout the later half of the 19th century and the first two decades of the 20th century, immigrants from across Europe migrated to the Keweenaw to work in the copper mines and mining communities. By 1910 the Copper Country had been settled by French Canadian, German, Chinese, Irish, Cornish, Croatian, Finnish, Italian, Greek and Syrian people.</p><br>
<p>When news of the regions rich native copper was first widely published in the 1830s, many families from the English county of Cornwall immigrated to the Upper Peninsula, bringing the Cornish pasty and their regions knowledge of hard-rock mining with them. Several park Heritage Sites, including the log cabin village of "Old Victoria," recall Cornish heritage in the region.</p><br>
<p>Later in the 1800s, many families from Finland emigrated to the United States. Until 1918, Finland belonged to Russia as a Grand Duchy. A large percentage of these Finns settled in the Western Upper Peninsula because of perceived similarities between their old and new homes, and found work in the Keweenaw. Finnish saunas can still be found throughout the area. Several park Heritage Sites, including the "Hanka Homestead", recall the Finnish influx.</p><br>
<h2>Calumet Unit</h2><br>
<p>The Calumet Unit of the Keweenaw National Historical Park includes many sites in and around the villages of Calumet and Laurium, which are not ghost towns but operating human communities that have survived the shutdown of their parent employer, the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, in 1968. By digging shafts into the rock, the men and owners of the Calumet & Hecla found geological formations of rock laced with nuggets of almost pure copper.</p><br>
<p>The Calumet & Hecla was the richest of the separate copper mines of the Keweenaw, and the towns built at the mine head reflect its productivity. A 1,200-seat opera house, large churches built of Lake Superior brownstone, and mansions built by the mining bosses survive as memories of the Calumet mine&#39;s glory years.</p><br>
<h2>Quincy Unit</h2><br>
<h2>Heritage Sites</h2><br>
<p>As of 2023, the Keweenaw National Historical Park operates in cooperation with 23 heritage sites in the Keweenaw Peninsula and nearby. The heritage site system was established in 2007 with an original set of 19 sites. In October 2013, two new sites were added: Houghton&#39;s Carnegie Museum and the Michigan Technological University Archives.</p><br>
<h3>Adventure Mining Company</h3><br>
<p>The Adventure Mining Company is located at 200 Adventure Avenue in Greenland, Michigan. Although the site seemed promising, the mine never turned a profit. The Adventure Mining Company currently offers tours of the surface and underground portions of the Adventure Mine.</p><br>
<h3>A.E. Seaman Mineral Museum</h3><br>
<p>The A.E. Seaman Mineral Museum was located on the Fifth Floor of Electrical Resource Center at Michigan Technological University in Houghton, Michigan.</p><br>
<p>The mineral collection was established in the 19th century, and by 1890 numbered 27,000 specimens. The museum features an extensive mineral collection and exhibits on copper formation, and has the world&#39;s best collection of crystallized native copper and native copper in crystallized calcite.</p><br>
<h3>Carnegie Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Carnegie Museum in Houghton is a former Carnegie library and former home of the Portage Lake District Library. It is currently a museum focusing on local history.</p><br>
<h3>Calumet Theatre</h3><br>
<p>The Calumet Theatre is located at 340 Sixth Street in Calumet, Michigan, within the park&#39;s Calumet Unit. However, in the late 1920s, the theatre converted to a movie house, serving in this medium until the 1950s. Summer stock theatre was brought back to the Calumet Theater in 1958, and performed there every summer until 1968, and returned in 1972.</p><br>
<p>In 1975, the auditorium was restored for the centennial of Calumet. The staff consists mostly of volunteers, though there are eight full-time staff members. Today, the Calumet Theatre is home to as many as 80 theatre-related events a year, with an estimated 20,000 people attending.</p><br>
<h3>Chassell Heritage Center</h3><br>
<p>The Chassell Heritage Center is located at 42373 Hancock Street in Chassell, Michigan. features exhibits that trace Chassell&#39;s history from a fishing and lumber town up to the present.</p><br>
<h3>Copper Range Historical Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Copper Range Historical Museum is located Trimountain Avenue in South Range, Michigan. and features exhibits on the Copper Range Company.</p><br>
<h3>Coppertown USA Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Coppertown USA Museum is located at 25815 Red Jacket Road in Calumet, Michigan, within the park&#39;s Calumet Unit.</p><br>
<h3>Delaware Copper Mine</h3><br>
<p>The Delaware Copper Mine is located off USA Highway 41 (US 41), 12 mi south of Copper Harbor, Michigan. The mine had five shafts, with the deepest reaching 1,400 ft. The mine is open June through October and offers guided and self-guided tours.</p><br>
<h3>Finnish American Heritage Center & Historical Archive</h3><br>
<p>The Finnish American Heritage Center & Historical Archive is located at 601 Quincy Street on the campus of Finlandia University in Hancock, Michigan. The associated Historical Archive houses the largest collection of Finnish-North American materials in the world. This collection, established in 1932, currently houses 20,000 items, including genealogical resources, information about Finnish culture, artifacts, and Finnish-American artwork.</p><br>
<h3>Fort Wilkins Historic State Park</h3><br>
<p>Fort Wilkins Historic State Park is located on US 41 in Copper Harbor, Michigan.</p><br>
<h3>Hanka Homestead</h3><br>
<p>The Hanka Homestead is located approximately 3 mi west of USA Highway 41, off Tower Road in Pelkie, Michigan. The farm was lived in by members of the Hanka family until 1966; the farm has been restored to its appearance in 1920.</p><br>
<h3>Houghton County Historical Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Houghton County Historical Museum is located at 5500 M-26 in Lake Linden, Michigan. In addition, the Houghton County Historical Museum runs the narrow gauge Lake Linden & Torch Lake Railroad, the Traprock Valley School House (a one-room school), the First Congregational Church in Lake Linden, Michigan (used as the HCHS Heritage Center), the Leo Chaput Log Cabin, and the Perl Merrill Research Center (used as the archives and a genealogical facility).</p><br>
<h3>Keweenaw County Historical Society</h3><br>
<p>The Keweenaw County Historical Society, established in 1981,</p><br>
<h3>Keweenaw Heritage Center</h3><br>
<p>The Keweenaw Heritage Center is located in the old Ste. Annes church at 25880 Red Jacket Road in Calumet, Michigan, within the parks Calumet Unit. It was underutilized for a number of years until, in 1994, a group of local citizens bought the building. The Keweenaw Heritage Center&#39;s mission is to "preserve and interpret the culture and heritage of the Copper Country through the preservation of buildings, development of exhibits and other educational activities." A major museum on the first floor is planned.</p><br>
<h3>Laurium Manor Inn</h3><br>
<p>The Laurium Manor Inn is located at 320 Tamarack Street in Laurium, Michigan. The house functions as a bed and breakfast and is open to the public for tours.</p><br>
<h3>Michigan Technological University Archives</h3><br>
<p>The Michigan Technological University Archives, housed in the university library, store many documents related to the history of the area.</p><br>
<h3>Old Victoria</h3><br>
<p>Old Victoria is located at Victoria Dam Road in Rockland Township, Michigan. The structures were restored in the 1970s, and tours through the cabins and the mine site beyond are available.</p><br>
<h3>Ontonagon County Historical Society</h3><br>
<p>The Ontonagon County Historical Society is located at 422 River Street in Ontonagon, Michigan. Exhibits at the historical society&#39;s museum include artifacts related to the early days of mining and other topics. The Society acquired the lighthouse in 2000, and offers tours in the summer months.</p><br>
<h3>Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park</h3><br>
<p>Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park is located west of Ontonagon, Michigan on Michigan State Route 107.</p><br>
<h3>Quincy Mine Hoist and Underground Mine</h3><br>
<p>The Quincy Mine Hoist and Underground Mine is located at 49750 US 41 in Hancock, Michigan, within the park&#39;s Quincy Unit.</p><br>
<h3>Upper Peninsula Firefighters Memorial Museum</h3><br>
<p>The Upper Peninsula Firefighters Memorial Museum is located at 327 Sixth Street in Calumet, Michigan, within the parks Calumet Unit. The second floor of the building holds exhibits on the history of fire fighting in Michigans Upper Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Natchez National Historical Park commemorates the history of Natchez, Mississippi, and is managed by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>The park consists of four separate sites:</p><br>
<p>Fort Rosalie is the site of a former fortification from the 18th century, built by the French. It was later renamed Fort Panmure and controlled in turn by Great Britain, Spain, and the United States. The fort site is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The William Johnson House was the home of William Johnson, a 19th-century free African American barber and resident of Natchez whose diary has been published.</p><br>
<p>Melrose was the estate of John T. McMurran, a lawyer, state senator, and planter who lived in Natchez from 1830 until the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Forks of the Road marks what was the second-busiest slave trading market in the Deep South between 1832 and 1863. This unit of the park opened in an official ceremony on June 18, 2021.</p><br>
<p>Both Melrose and the William Johnson House contain furnishings related to life in antebellum Natchez and other exhibits. The collection at Melrose&#39;s two-story Greek Revival mansion and its slave quarters include painted floor cloths, mahogany, a punkah, a set of Rococo Revival parlor furniture, a set of Gothic Revival dining room chairs, and bookcases with books dating to the 18th century. These were collected from Natchez families, including the McMurran family. The collection in the Johnson house includes furnishings from his life and family. Archaeological objects found in the park are also on display.</p><br>
<h2>Legal history</h2><br>
<p>The National Historical Park was authorized on October 7, 1988. The William Johnson House was added to it on September 28, 1990. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Fort Rosalie was already included in the National Register as part of the 1972 NRHP-listed Natchez Bluffs and Under-the-Hill Historic District; the William Johnson House, at 210 State St., is a few blocks from the Fort Rosalie site and is both separately NRHP-listed and also included in the Natchez On-Top-of-the-Hill Historic District. Melrose is located about two miles southeast of Fort Rosalie.</p><br>
<p>New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park is a USA National Historical Park in the Tremé neighborhood of New Orleans, near the French Quarter. It was created in 1994 to celebrate the origins and evolution of jazz.</p><br>
<p>Most of the historical park property consists of 4 acre within Louis Armstrong Park leased by the National Park Service. There is a visitor center at 916 North Peters Street and a concert venue, several blocks away in the French Quarter. The Park provides a setting for sharing the cultural history of the people and places which helped to shape the development and progression of jazz in New Orleans. National Park Service staff present information and resources associated with the origins and early development of jazz, through interpretive techniques designed to educate and entertain.</p><br>
<h2>Perseverance Hall No. 4</h2><br>
<p>The centerpiece of the site is Perseverance Hall No. 4. Originally a Masonic Lodge, it was built between 1819 and 1820, making it the oldest Masonic temple in Louisiana.</p><br>
<p>Perseverance Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 2, 1973. The entire National Historical Park was administratively listed on the Register on the date of its authorization, October 31, 1994.</p><br>
<p>Lafitte&#39;s Blacksmith Shop is a historic structure at the corner of Bourbon Street and St. Philip Street in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana. Most likely built as a house in the 1770s during the Spanish colonial period, it is one of the oldest surviving structures in New Orleans.</p><br>
<p>According to legend, the privateer Jean Lafitte, aka John Lafitte, owned a business here in the early 19th century. As with many things involving the Lafittes, including the possibility that they used the structure to plot illegal seizures and the sale of contraband, no documentation exists (it was only after the Lafitte brothers were long gone that Jean&#39;s signature was found on a document, finally ascertaining how their family name was spelled: LAFFITE).</p><br>
<p>It is purported to be one of the more haunted venues in the French Quarter. The name Blacksmith Shop may not be coincidental. Lafittes associates may have operated a smithy here during the days of reliance upon horses, who had to be shod. Jeans older brother Pierre Lafitte was a blacksmith, and their associate Renato Beluche may have once owned this building.</p><br>
<p>The current business traces its roots to Roger Tom Caplinger, who in the mid-1940s turned the old abandoned shop into Café Lafitte. The cafe became a popular night spot that attracted a bohemian clientele, including the gay community and celebrities like Noël Coward and Tennessee Williams. However, Caplinger never held clear title to the property and the building was sold in 1953. He soon opened a second cafe at the other end of the same block named Café Lafitte in Exile, which maintains that it is the oldest gay bar in the USA</p><br>
<p>The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970. It is a rare extant example of briquette-entre-poteaux construction.</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>Lafitte&#39;s Blacksmith Shop is featured in the historical novel Anthony Adverse by Hervey Allen. As depicted in the novel, the "blacksmith shop" was mainly a cover for maintaining a gang of exceptionally tall and strong black slaves &ndash; who were ostensibly engaged in shoeing horses while being used by the Lafitte brothers for intimidation, extortion and other criminal activities in and around New Orleans.</p><br>
<p>Deering Oaks Park is a 55 acre public park in Portland, Maine, which has a baseball diamond, tennis courts, a playground, and a pond. It is located west of downtown Portland and is bordered by Deering Avenue to the west, Forest Avenue to the east, Park Avenue to the south and Interstate 295 to the north. State Street and High Street pass through the park. Access is from State Street, Deering Avenue, or Park Avenue. The Portland Farmers&#39; Market is located on the Park Avenue side of the park. The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During King William&#39;s War, Benjamin Church helped defend the British settlers on this site in September 1689 against Canadiens, and tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy.</p><br>
<p>The city had for some time been interested in the Deering Oaks property, part of a larger estate owned by the Deering family since the early 19th century. In 1875, the Deerings offered the city 50 acre of land in exchange for a tax abatement, and the city agreed to the deal in 1879. The park was developed by William Goodwin, the citys civil engineer, as part of an overall master plan for city parks developed by Frederick Law Olmsted. Goodwins vision largely survives today, except only for the loss of a small portion of the park&#39;s north side, for the construction of Interstate 295.</p><br>
<p>Deering Oaks Pond at one time filled and drained with the ocean tides; it was naturally connected to Back Cove until altered to suit roadways in the late 19th century. Deering Oaks Park also hosts the city&#39;s monument to the Spanish–American War, a casting of The Hiker by Theo Alice Ruggles Kitson. During the winter, one can ice skate on the frozen pond, and until the late 1990s, paddle boats could be rented during the summer season to explore the confines of the pond and enjoy the scenery.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, Deering Oaks Park hosted a rally calling for the repeal of the "Dont ask, dont tell" military policy; the singer Lady Gaga, among others, spoke and the rally drew approximately 2,000 people.</p><br>
<h2>Improvements</h2><br>
<p>In 1994, the Portland City Council unanimously approved the Deering Oaks Master Plan for improving the park. The plan called for the closing of State Street where it bisects the park and the restoration of the original entrance at State St. and Park Avenue. As of 2004, the city had spent $3 million over 10 years on the park, including the building of a children&#39;s wading pool, the conversion of the Bowling Green Road to a pedestrian walkway and improvements to the sports facilities, including the tennis courts.</p><br>
<h3>Bridge over Deering Oaks Ravine</h3><br>
<p>An arched footbridge, measuring 40 feet in length, was built in 1911 spanning the Deering Oaks Ravine. It cost the city $3,355. Portland also built 8-foot tall lamps on both sides of the bridge made of glass. It replaced a wooden bridge. In 2007, an engineering firm commissioned by the city estimated that cleaning, coating and repairing the bridge would cost $216,000. Funds were set aside from the capital improvement budget from 2007–2009 and work began in 2010. Along with other improvements, the city planned to install decorative cast-iron street lamps similar to the original lamps in the park. The new lights were expected to be made of polycarbonate, not glass, to eliminate vandalism.</p><br>
<h3>Castle-in-the-Park</h3><br>
<p>Deering Oak&#39;s Castle-in-the-Park was built in 1894 as a warming hut for ice skaters and is located next to the pond on the State Street side of the park. In 2004, work was done to restore the structure to its original Victorian style. The structure had hosted unattended public bathrooms for the previous 50 years. Friends of Deering Oaks, a community organization supporting the park, funded the $675,000 project.</p><br>
<h3>Deering Oaks Pond</h3><br>
<p>In 1996 Deering Oaks Pond served as the backdrop for an ice skating scene in the film "The Preacher&#39;s Wife" starring Whitney Houston and Denzel Washington. A Portland resident wrote that the Associated Press had reported at the time that 150 crew members cordoned off a portion of the park from the public for four days, and about 140 local people were plucked from an auditioning crowd of 6,000 to play extras in the scene—doing things in the background to make it look like a typical urban Christmas in a park: skating, walking, snowball fights, etc.</p><br>
<p>In 2010, Portland received a federal grant worth $1.2 million to line the bottom of Deering Oaks Pond, with a local match of $540,000. The project was designed to promote water quality, which was harmed by algae blooms in the summer due to organic material settling on the bottom of the pond, and to prevent structural damage. Construction has begun on lining the bottom of the pond with cement. By covering the wetland soils this pond will no longer be spring fed; it will not sustain plant life and the ducks who live here will need to rely heavily on food from humans to survive, as their natural food supply will be cut off. It is not known whether cattails and other breeding habitat components will be restored as part of this project.</p><br>
<h3>Deering Oaks Ravine</h3><br>
<p>The Ravine is a children&#39;s pool and splash area adjacent to the pond. When the park was first established, the Ravine had a spring-fed stream running through it. But in the 1930s, the spring was affected by nearby development resulting in the Portland Water District piping in water to run through the Ravine into the pond. In the 1950s, the pool was declared a public health hazard and filled in. In the 21st century, the Ravine was rebuilt as a shallow, granite-edged pool, a splash pad, and a reflecting pool sculpture with a ring of carved stones created by artist Carole Hanson called The Circle of Life.</p><br>
<p>The Ginocchio or Ginocchio Hotel is a historic hotel in Marshall, Texas that was originally constructed in 1896 next to the Texas and Pacific Railway station. At that time, it was on the same side of the tracks and provided disembarking passengers with ready access to a hotel and restaurant facility. During its height, the building housed several USA Presidents and actor John Barrymore , among others. The name is derived from the family that built the building and is located in the Ginocchio Historic District of the National Register of Historic Places. In 2017, the establishment reopened under new ownership as a restaurant and bar after being closed for renovations for two years.</p><br>
<p>The Tangier American Legation , officially the Tangier American Legation Institute for Moroccan Studies , is a building in the medina of Tangier, Morocco, that formerly housed the United States diplomatic mission to Morocco. It was the first American public property abroad and is the only USA National Historic Landmark in a foreign country.</p><br>
<p>The legation was established on May 17, 1821, following decades of cordial relations between the USA and Morocco; Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah had issued a proclamation recognizing USA independence from Great Britain on December 20, 1777, making his nation the first to do so. The building was gifted by the sultan to the USA government to serve as a diplomatic post, for which it remained for the next 140 years.</p><br>
<p>After Morocco&#39;s diplomatic capital moved to Rabat in 1956, the building served a variety of government functions, before gradually falling into neglect and disrepair. In 1976, former USA diplomats established the nonprofit Tangier American Legation Museum Society to restore and preserve the structure; the site has since served as a cultural center, museum, and research library, concentrating on Arabic language studies.</p><br>
<p>The Tangier American Legation is considered a symbol of the historic cultural and diplomatic relations between the USA and the Kingdom of Morocco, and of long-running American engagement with the wider Islamic world. In recognition of its historic and cultural importance, the site was listed on the USA National Register of Historic Places in 1981 and designated a National Historic Landmark the following year; it is one of 39 properties owned by the USA Department of State listed in the Register of Culturally Significant Property.</p><br>
<h2>Diplomatic history</h2><br>
<p>The legation is an elaborate Moorish-style building of stuccoed masonry. This complex structure contains the two-story mud and stone building presented to the United States in 1821 by Sultan Moulay Suliman. The first property acquired abroad by the United States government, it housed the United States Legation and Consulate for 140 years, the longest period any building abroad has been occupied as a United States diplomatic post. It is symbolic of the 1786 Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, which is still in force today. The complex expanded over the years as the surrounding houses were bought up. During World War II it served as headquarters for United States intelligence agents.</p><br>
<p>After the move to Rabat as the diplomatic capital in 1956, when the country gained its independence, the Legation was abandoned as a diplomatic building. Over the years the United States government proceeded to use it as consul offices and Peace Corps offices, among other things. In time it became neglected and threatened with demolition.</p><br>
<h2>Present</h2><br>
<p>In 1976 a group of American citizens established a public, non-profit organization to save the Old American Legation (as it is known locally). Today the Tangier American Legation Museum Society rents the structure, which is still owned by the United States government.</p><br>
<p>The Tangier American Legation Institute for Moroccan Studies (TALIM) is a museum and cultural center for the study of Morocco and Morocco–United States relations, and it has many paintings by Marguerite McBey and other artists. In 2010, TALIM expanded the original Paul Bowles room to The Paul Bowles Wing, three rooms devoted to the expatriate writer and composer Paul Bowles. In 1999, the Legation received its initial donation of furniture, photographs and documents for the original Paul Bowles Room compiled by Gloria Kirby, a permanent resident of Tangier and friend of Bowles. The museum also has a research library and conference room. TALIM&#39;s community outreach programs include Arabic literacy courses for women living in the Tangier medina. Jen Rasamimanana is the current museum director.</p><br>
<p>Echo Lake Park is a park located along the Mount Blue Sky Scenic Byway about 33.5 mi west of Denver, Colorado. The park provides a stone shelter with picnic tables and barbecue grills on one end of the lake, and the 1926 Echo Lake Lodge  and an Arapaho National Forest campground are found at the other. Access to backpacking trails, including the Chicago Lakes trail and Lincoln Lakes trail, can be found adjacent to the lake. The park is part of the Denver Mountain Parks system.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designation</h2><br>
<p>Echo Lake Park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. The listing included two contributing buildings, two contributing structures, and a contributing site on 600 acre. It included the Echo Lake Lodge, built in 1926, which was designed by Denver architect Jacques Benedict, a two-story octagonal log building on a base of local granite that resembles a Native American earth lodge.</p><br>
<p>Echo Lake, along with Mount Blue Sky, was designated as a historic site by the American Physical Society in 2017, in honor of many cosmic-ray physics experiments conducted at the lake and on the mountain between 1935 and 1960. The historic plaque is outside the Echo Lake Lodge.</p><br>
<h2>Echo Lake</h2><br>
<p>Echo Lake is a shallow, oligotrophic lake situated at 10,600 ft above sea level near Mount Blue Sky in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. It formed during the latest period of glaciation roughly 10,000 years ago. As glaciers retreated in the Chicago Creek valley, lateral moraines formed a natural dam to drainage, forming the lake. The ecosystem around the lake is dominated by Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii) and Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa), with some Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis) on exposed sites.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Adair County Courthouse is located in Stilwell, Oklahoma and is the central building for the county government for Adair County, Oklahoma. The current building is the fourth building in Stilwell to serve as the courthouse. From 1902 until 1908 a two-story wood-frame schoolhouse served as the courthouse. In 1908 a new brick building was built and was used until 1920 when a building of native stone was built. On December 30, 1929, the new stone building burned down. The current classically inspired, art deco building was built on the same site and was completed in 1930. The building was designed by Haralson & Nelson and was built out of limestone, steel, and concrete. The cornice has molded bas-relief figures of American Indians in full headdress. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. In 1992 a marble war memorial which contained the names of all Adair County residents killed in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War was dedicated on the courthouse lawn.</p><br>
<p>Golda&#39;s Mill was a historic water mill in Adair County, Oklahoma near Stilwell. It was built in about 1882 by Dr. Nicholas Bitting on the site of an older mill. It had an overshot water wheel which was 20 feet in diameter. The original wooden wheel was replaced by a steel wheel in 1908. The mill was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. The mill continued in operation until 1983, when it was destroyed by fire.</p><br>
<p>The Buffington Hotel is a historic hotel in Westville, Oklahoma, United States. The brick building was built in 1912 and features an arcade of round-arch windows on the East and South facades. The hotel was the premiere hotel in Westville when the town was railway stop. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The hotel has been greatly altered from its original form, including; the southeast breezeway having been bricked off and a room created and the second story bay windows covered in aluminum siding. The owner as of 2014 is a Westville man named Bud Rose. The hotel had been used as multi-unit housing until 2004, when Mr. Rose converted the entire downstairs into a personal residence. The upstairs twenty-one rooms are now vacant.</p><br>
<p>Buffington Hotel was recently purchased and is now undergoing renovations. Renovation began in early 2020 and progress has been slowed due to the pandemic, but the hotel is looking better than it has in the past few years.</p><br>
<p>Second Presbyterian Church is a landmark Gothic Revival church located on South Michigan Avenue in Chicago, Illinois, United States. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some of Chicagos most prominent families attended this church. It is renowned for its interior, completely redone in the Arts and Crafts style after a disastrous fire in 1900. The sanctuary is one of Americas best examples of an unaltered Arts and Crafts church interior, fully embodying that movement&#39;s principles of simplicity, hand craftsmanship, and unity of design. It also boasts nine imposing Tiffany windows. The church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 and later designated a Chicago Landmark on September 28, 1977. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in March 2013.</p><br>
<h2>History of the congregation</h2><br>
<p>Second Presbyterian Church organized in 1842 as an offshoot of the citys first Presbyterian congregation, which had formed in 1833. From 1851 until 1871, the congregation worshipped in a church at the northeast corner of Wabash Avenue and Washington Street in downtown Chicago. Known as the spotted church because of the tar deposits in its limestone blocks, this building was designed by the noted eastern architect, James Renwick Jr. Renwick later designed St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and the original building of the Smithsonian Institution. Already in the late 1860s, downtown Chicago was becoming more commercial and less residential, and Second Presbyterian&#39;s leaders prepared plans to follow its membership to the near South Side. Just a few weeks before the Great Chicago Fire in October 1871, which destroyed the spotted church, the congregation had merged with another congregation and had relocated to the South Side.</p><br>
<p>Many wealthy Chicago residents attended Second Presbyterian, including members of the George Pullman, Silas B. Cobb, Timothy Blackstone, and George Armour families. These were men who moved to Chicago from New England or New York State in the mid-nineteenth century to make their fortunes and build a new metropolis on the prairie. Proud of their adopted city, they endowed cultural institutions like the Art Institute of Chicago and the University of Chicago. Robert Todd Lincoln, the presidents son, was also a church trustee. When the South Side emerged in the 1870s as the citys premier residential neighborhood, the business elite built imposing houses on South Prairie Avenue, South Michigan Avenue, South Calumet Avenue and other streets.</p><br>
<p>As of 2023, the diverse church had about 125 members. The church "also serves many visitors seeking meals, music, and community" in addition to after-school tutoring, practice space for the South Loop Symphony Orchestra, and a basketball gymnasium.</p><br>
<h2>Original appearance of the church</h2><br>
<p>For its new building on South Michigan Avenue at 20th Street (now Cullerton), the congregation again turned to James Renwick. Renwick designed a church based on early English Gothic examples, with a high-pitched gable roof, a rose window in the east wall, and a corner bell tower. The exterior is clad in limestone with sandstone trim. Sculpture on the exterior is limited; the Four Evangelists and the head of Jesus appear on the entry wall on Michigan Avenue and gargoyles loom from the bell tower. The interior was also thoroughly Gothic, with pointed arches leading to the side aisles, slender iron columns supporting the balcony, and extensive stenciling adorning the walls. The sanctuary in the new building was dedicated in 1874.</p><br>
<p>In March 1900, fire gutted the sanctuary. The church turned to one of its members, Howard Van Doren Shaw, for the rebuilding. Shaw, 31 at the time, was a graduate of Yale University and the architecture program of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After working briefly in the office of Chicago&#39;s skyscraper pioneer William Le Baron Jenney, Shaw established his own practice. Shaw also had traveled extensively in Britain and was familiar with the work of Arts and Crafts architects like Philip Webb and C.F.A. Voysey.</p><br>
<h2>The remodeled interior</h2><br>
<p>Shaw, working with his friend, the painter Frederic Clay Bartlett, and several other designers and craftsmen, gave Second Presbyterian a sanctuary firmly rooted in Arts and Crafts principles. Abandoning the original neo-Gothic approach, Shaw lowered the pitch of the roof by 14 feet and moved the support columns closer to the side walls to visually increase the width of the space, and used warm stained oak and plaster panels throughout. He planned an auditorium-style sanctuary, with no central aisle that would seat 1200. This was appropriate for a congregation that emphasized preaching and musical worship. For the same reason, the pews are gently curved, providing good sight lines to the pulpit. The decorative program of the interior is rich, but subdued, emphasizing brown, buff, dusky crimson, and dull gold.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s figurative art, with dozens of angels in glass, wood, and plaster, and two brightly colored saints in the lobby windows, is perhaps surprising for a Presbyterian congregation. This congregation, however, was culturally sophisticated and well-traveled. Many members had seen the great cathedrals of Europe and wanted their home church to make an equivalent artistic statement.</p><br>
<p>In line with the Arts and Crafts ethos, Shaw and Bartlett designed every element of the new interior to work together to create a restful and harmonious whole. Attention was paid to every detail of pew carving, plaster casting, and fixture design. Leading Chicago area designers and craftsmen were employed for elements like the seven-armed electric candelabra flanking the pulpit (William Lau) and the four stately heralding angels standing atop the organ case (Beil & Mauch). Electric lighting was used throughout the sanctuary, and Shaw embraced the naked bulbs as design elements in the circular chandeliers and the fixtures hanging over the side aisles.</p><br>
<p>A number of recurring motifs tie the various interior elements together. The most obvious is that of the angel. Some 175 grace the interior, including the four heralding angels above the organ loft and those carved into the brackets from which the chandeliers hang. Another recurring motif is the grapevine, found in the pew ends, the light screen at the sanctuarys rear, many of Bartletts murals, and the dull gold of the screen concealing the organ pipes. The Austin Organ Co. reworked the instrument in 1917 as its Opus 767, providing it with a two-manual console and ten ranks. The organ today has 43 ranks and 2,600 pipes.</p><br>
<p>Second Presbyterian Church occupies a prominent place in Chicago&#39;s social and industrial history and its artistic heritage. Its glorious interior is now being seen by a wider audience after decades of semi-obscurity. Tours featuring the art and architecture of the building are offered on a regular schedule., organized in 2006, was formed to guide the accurate restoration of the building and to oversee tours and events.</p><br>
<h3>Murals</h3><br>
<p>Bartletts pre-Raphaelite murals are one of the glories of the sanctuary, and they were widely published after their completion. From a well-to-do Chicago family, Bartlett had studied painting at Munichs Royal Academy and with masters in Paris. For Second Presbyterian, Bartlett sought inspiration in the work of medieval church painters. He consciously rejected the post-Renaissance artistic tradition, with its emphasis on perspective and verisimilitude. Bartlett preferred to focus on expressiveness and spirituality, which he found in the flat and serene figures painted on the walls of medieval Italian churches. Bartlett painted directly on the dry plaster of the sanctuarys vertical walls. The paintings in the ceilings of the arches were done on canvas in his studio and then mounted in the church. Bartletts figures have bold outlines and sumptuous robes of muted blue, crimson, and green. He used gold leaf extensively and supplied relief to features like haloes with a plaster technique known as pargeting.</p><br>
<p>The majestic 40-foot-wide mural behind the altar represents the tree of life surmounted by a heavenly rainbow. Above that is a celestial orchestra in medieval robes. Bartletts care in blending decoration to the sanctuarys architecture is evident; his rainbow echoes the curve of the ceiling. Bartlett&#39;s work in the twelve bays of the balcony centers on the themes of praise, abundance, and sacred music. Texts from scripture are painted on the walls below the figures.</p><br>
<p>Many of these murals were restored in the 2010s and early 2020s.</p><br>
<h3>Windows</h3><br>
<p>When the sanctuary was rededicated in 1901, many of its arched openings contained simple windows with small, stylized floral designs by Shaw and executed by the firm of Gianini and Hilgart. Between 1894 and 1927, Other sanctuary windows were designed by Louis J. Millet and McCully & Miles.</p><br>
<p>Pastoral Window.jpgPastoral window by Tiffany Studios, 1917</p><br>
<p>Ascension window.JPGAscension window by William Fair Kline, 1903</p><br>
<p>St Cecilia narthex.jpgSt. Cecilia window by Edward Burne-Jones, late 19th century</p><br>
<p>The two Edward Burne-Jones windows in the lobby tie Second Presbyterian directly to the British Arts and Crafts Movement. Burne-Jones was a close associate of William Morris, founder of the Arts and Crafts in Britain. Morris and Co. crafted these two windows from the designs of Burne-Jones. The subjects are St. Margaret of Antioch, in robes of rich crimson, and St. Cecilia, in blue robes, a portable organ in her arms. These windows were displayed in the William Morris Memorial Room of Chicago&#39;s Tobey Furniture Co. before being purchased by the Franklin Darius Gray family and made into memorials. Burne-Jones windows are rare in the United States; these are the only ones known outside of the East Coast.</p><br>
<p>In a multi-million dollar project, several windows have completed extensive renovation and repair and additional window repair was ongoing as of 2023.</p><br>
<p>Doughoregan Manor is a plantation house and estate located on Manor Lane west of Ellicott City, Maryland, United States. Established in the early 18th century as the seat of Maryland&#39;s prominent Carroll family, it was home to Founding Father Charles Carroll, a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, during the late 18th century. A portion of the estate, including the main house, was designated a National Historic Landmark on November 11, 1971. It remains in the Carroll family as a private working farm.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Doughoregan Manor is a colonial manor house built in the early 18th century. The slave plantation was founded on 7,000 acres patented to Charles Carroll I as "Doughoreagan" (sometimes spelled Doororegan) named for a family estate in Ireland, in 1702, and expanded to 10,000 acres as "Doughoreagan Manor" in 1717. The Georgian brick plantation house, built by Charles Carroll II around 1727, was enlarged and remodeled in 1832 by Charles Carroll V in the Greek Revival style.</p><br>
<p>From 1766 to 1832, Doughoregan Manor was the country home of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, (Charles Carroll III) last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence. He lies buried in the chapel attached to the north end of the mansion. Notable guests that have visited the manor include George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, John Hancock, Benjamin Franklin, James Monroe, and Marquis de Lafayette. In 1861, the manor became the home of John Lee Carroll, who became Governor of Maryland.</p><br>
<p>In its current configuration the Manor is a brick, two-storied, U-shaped building. The roof is in gabled sections, some with balustraded decks, and in the center is an octagonal cupola. The front center entrance has a one-story tetrastyle Doric portico and is similar to the rear portico. The chapel and kitchen are attached to the main block by hyphens.</p><br>
<p>The private chapel attached to the manor house was built at a time when the founding of Roman Catholic parish churches was prohibited in the colony. The chapel served as the primary meeting place for the local Catholic community until as late as 1855 when nearby parishes were founded. The chapel continued to be open to the public on Sunday mornings for Mass until the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>A vineyard was planted by Charles Carroll of Annapolis in 1770 with four types of grapes. The vineyard was maintained into 1796, becoming one of the longest surviving colonial vineyards in the United States. A postal office served the manor from 18 September 1876 to 31 August 1907. The manor became the site for the yearly Howard County Horse Show through the 1930s, attracting thousands. The "Manor Dairy" opened in 1962 providing milk and dairy products.</p><br>
<p>The Carroll family were enthusiastic horse breeders and raced thoroughbreds, competing with other well-to-do families at annual racing events, which also formed an important part of the social and political life of the colony. Charles Carroll of Annapoliss horse was beaten in 1743 by George Hume Steuarts "Dungannon" in the Annapolis Subscription Plate, established that year.</p><br>
<p>In 1830, Emily Caton MacTavish donated 253 acres to build St. Charles College, Maryland, After a fire in 1911, Carroll family heirs sued to sell the property and divide the proceeds among the family.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil war, the manor served as a hub for munitions for Southern supporters, also using nearby Mt. Pleasant as a substation. By 1931, the manor estate consisted of the mansion, overseer&#39;s house, horse stable, bank barn, 3 silos, corn house, 11 tenant houses, wash house, sheep house, coach house, brick barn and two barracks.</p><br>
<p>Members of the Carroll family still own and live in the manor, which sits at the center of an 892 acre of the original 13,361.5 acre estate. Land was divided among the heirs each generation, sold for subdivisions, with at least 2,800 acre owned by the family as late as 1971 and 2,400 acre by 1977. According to a newspaper article: "As one family member put it a few years ago, Only God, the Indians and the Carrolls have owned this land."</p><br>
<p>The estate and Manor Lane are closed to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Tax credits and development plans</h2><br>
<p>In 1971, the owner, Phillip Carroll, did not want to commit all 2,042 acres to landmark status, preferring to leave part of it for future development, so about 900 acres were designated landmark status, according to the National Register of Historic Places inventory sheet. However, with the 1976 Tax Reform Act, the owner changed his mind and requested the landmark status encompass all the acreage, which was granted.</p><br>
<p>The 30-year tax credit and Maryland Historical Trust&#39;s easement expired in 2007. In an attempt to keep the majority of the property in the hands of the Carroll family, they struck a deal in 2008 with Erickson Retirement Communities to sell 150 acres, but the deal fell through the following year. Camilla Carroll, co-owner of the estate, insisted that "...there is no money now to restore anything, and historic buildings are falling down as we speak."</p><br>
<p>The County Commissioners voted in 2010 to pay the Carroll family about 19 million dollars over twenty years to place 500 acres in Howard County&#39;s Agricultural Preservation program. The council approved paying to expand the public water and sewer system to the development and the Carrolls would donate 34 acres to expand a county park. 221 acres of Doughoregan Manor were rezoned to allow 325 single-family homes to be built on the north-east side of the property. Many neighbors were concerned with the plans and a petition was filed in circuit court for judicial review of the zoning decision.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, tax credits were awarded for work on an outbuilding at Doughoregan as one of the nine buildings listed in the 2015 Sustainable Communities Tax Credits of $10 million.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The house was originally a -story brick house, about 30 feet deep and 66 feet wide, with a gambrel roof. A detached brick chapel stood to the north, while a brick kitchen stood to the south. The dependent buildings were incorporated into the main structure in the 1830s by Charles Carroll V, raising the main houses roof to make a two-story structure. The new roof was topped by a balustraded deck with an octagonal cupola. The front (east) facade gained a one-story portico with doric columns. A similar portico to the road was built with a room above, while a marble-floored veranda with iron columns extended to each side. The chapels roof was raised and it was joined to the main house by a two-story passage, as was the kitchen. The work resulted in a Palladian style five-part house extending almost 300 ft.</p><br>
<p>The house&#39;s interior has a center-hall plan, with the oak-paneled main hall extending the full depth (30 feet) of the house. Stairs are located in a small side hall on the north side. A library, large parlor, small parlor and dining room occupy the first floor, with bedrooms on the second.</p><br>
<p>Expedition Island is an island in the Green River at downtown Green River, Wyoming. The island, now mostly taken up by a public park, is the place where Major John Wesley Powell and Vitaly Develvis started an expedition down the Green River and Colorado River in 1871. The park is also believed to mark where Major Powell started his earlier expedition down the two rivers in 1869. Expedition Island was designated a National Historic Landmark for this historic association on November 24, 1968.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>Expedition Island is located in the Green River, which flows roughly east–west south of downtown Green River. The island was originally larger, having been divided into two by subsequent erosive river actions. The northern island is undeveloped and overgrown, and is not believed to be the site of historic activity. The southern island is now a public park, with a recreation center and parking area at the southern end, and a tree-fringed grassy expanse to the north. It is accessible by road bridge from the north bank of the river, and by pedestrian bridge from the south. The park includes a stone marker commemorating the activities of John Wesley Powell.</p><br>
<p>John Wesley Powell (1834-1902), active in the second half of the 19th Century, was one of the most important American explorers. He led exploratory expeditions into some of the most inhospitable parts of the American West, notably including the first documented descent of the Grand Canyon. Two expeditions he led, including the one that entered the Grand Canyon, were formally launched from Expedition Island. The first was in 1869 and the second in 1871. These two expeditions are generally considered to have covered the last large land area in the continental United States left unexplored by European-Americans.</p><br>
<p>Today, the city of Green River marks the Powell expedition history with annual events. The channel east of the two islands is used for whitewater rafting and kayaking.</p><br>
<p>Fort Yellowstone was a USA Army fort, established in 1891 at Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone was designated in 1872 but the Interior Department was unable to effectively manage the park. Administration was transferred to the War Department in August 1886 and General Philip Sheridan sent a company of cavalry to Mammoth Hot Springs to build a cavalry post. The army originally called the post Camp Sheridan in honor of General Sheridan but the name was changed to Fort Yellowstone in 1891 when construction of the permanent fort commenced. The army administered the park until 1918 when it was transferred to the newly created National Park Service. The facilities of Fort Yellowstone now comprise the Yellowstone National Park headquarters, the Horace Albright Visitor Center and staff accommodations.</p><br>
<p>Between the years 1891 and 1913, a total of 60 structures were made at Fort Yellowstone, of which 35 were still in existence one hundred years later. The fort was built in two major construction waves. During the first construction period from 1891 to 1897, mainly wood-framed buildings in what has been referred to as "cottage style" were built. A few of them had Colonial Revival architectural elements. A second construction wave began in 1908 and concluded in 1913. These structures were primarily built from locally quarried sandstone. Many of the structures from the later construction period are now used as administrative offices, residences for National Park Service employees, museums and visitor center. Beyond the immediate confines of the fort, cabins were constructed for use by small detachments of army personnel while on patrol throughout the park.</p><br>
<p>Besides the buildings of Fort Yellowstone, the army left a legacy of policies and practices that served as precedents for the future National Park Service management of national parks. The army military commanders implemented backcountry patrols, wildlife protection and management, and protection of natural features. Army educational programs were later adopted by the National Park Service as part of their resource management. The army effectively implemented law enforcement priorities and developed a ranger force that provided for prosecution and punishment of those engaged in illegal activity in the national parks. The National Park Service carried over a version of the campaign hat worn by members of the army during the last years of their management of Yellowstone National Park for use by Park Rangers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>More than 40 years before the creation of the National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park was established on March 1, 1872, as the worlds first national park. Between 1872 and 1886, the park was administered by the Interior Department and was managed by a civilian superintendent with limited resources or legal authority to maintain and protect the parks natural features and wildlife, or to deal with poaching, vandalism and other destructive activities. Over the next decade, special interest groups such as concessionaires, railroad and mining interests attempted to commercialize and privatize park lands.</p><br>
<p>In August 1886, Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan sent Company M, 1st USA Cavalry to the Park, where they established Camp Sheridan, named after General Sheridan, at Mammoth Hot Springs.</p><br>
<p>Congress appropriated funds for the establishment of a permanent fort in 1891, and the Interior Department allocated land just north of Camp Sheridan for permanent facilities. Camp Sheridan was renamed Fort Yellowstone on May 11, 1891. The army continued to use Fort Yellowstone until they turned over control of the park and the fort to the newly formed National Park Service in October 1918.</p><br>
<p>Fort Yellowstone is a National Historic Landmark District that has 40 contributing buildings, two contributing structures, and two contributing sites. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 31, 2003 for its significance in conservation, military, politics and government from 1888 to 1918. The fort, along with concessionaire facilities that were built after the National Park Service assumed management of the park, comprise what is collectively known as the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>Fort Yellowstone was constructed between 1891 and 1913 on the eastern edge of the Mammoth Hot Springs terraces, southeast of the present Mammoth Hotel, at a cost of approximately $700,000 ($16 million in 2013 dollars). By 1905, three more troops of cavalry had been added to the original Company M contingent of 50 soldiers, and during this period the fort facilities were almost continuously expanded to meet the requirements of park administration, ordinary cavalry training, and growing numbers of visitors.</p><br>
<p>The initial wave of construction between 1891–97 was representative of typical army posts of the period. Like other western military posts, the earliest buildings erected at Fort Yellowstone were constructed according to quartermaster general standardized plans. In design, they were of a generally spartan appearance with a few Colonial Revival style domestic elements, described by the army as "cottage style". The buildings were of one to two-and-a-half stories in height, and of frame construction with drop siding and stone foundations, with evenly spaced double-hung sash windows and prominent porches.</p><br>
<p>A second phase of building and upgrades started in 1908 which resulted in the prominent architecture visible at Fort Yellowstone in the 21st century. Built from locally quarried sandstone, these buildings defined Fort Yellowstone. The most prominent of the structures built in the later period is the Horace Albright Visitor Center which was originally the bachelor officers quarters (Bldg 1). Each historic building in the fort and the park was assigned an official number, with the original bachelor officers quarters being building number 1. Architects Reed and Stem and Robert Reamer along with the USA Army Office of the Chief Quartermaster, Department of Dakota participated in the design of many of the facilities. Engineer facilities and landscaping were designed by Captain Hiram M. Chittenden of the USA Corps of Engineers.</p><br>
<h3>Initial construction period 1891–1907</h3><br>
<p>The first building constructed at Fort Yellowstone was the guardhouse (Bldg 9) at the southwest corner of the fort. In 1891, visitors traveled the lower Mammoth road through what is now the main residential area for park personnel. The guardhouse was the first building they encountered in the Mammoth area and there was always a sentry on duty to check visitors entering the park. The building is now a private residence.</p><br>
<p>A number of significant buildings were added to the fort from 1893 to 1899 including a 10-bed hospital, quarters for hospital personnel (Bldg 14), and a large hay shed (Bldg 20) which were constructed in areas behind officers row in 1894. Of these structures, only the hospital quarters building remains and is now used as a private residence. The most significant building constructed in 1895 was the USA Commissioners office, which included a jail and residence for the USA Marshal (Bldg 49). The first commissioner was Judge John W. Meldrum who served the army and National Park Service until 1935 from this building. Located well west of the rest of the fort, this was the first stone building within the fort. It was a one-and-a-half-story rock-faced sandstone dwelling with gable-on-hip roof, through-the-cornice dormers and a full-width porch. The ground floor of the house contained the jail, office, and living quarters while bedrooms were situated on the second floor. The structure is used today as a private residence. The building was funded with the passage of the Lacey Act of 1894. Sponsored by USA Representative John F. Lacey, the Lacey Act was "An Act To protect the birds and animals in Yellowstone National Park, and to punish crimes in said park, and for other purposes."</p><br>
<p>Construction during this period also included two double officers quarters (Bldgs 4 and 5) which completed "officers row" in 1893. Two NCO quarters (Bldgs 31 and 32) were added to "soap-suds row" in 1897 and the distinctive cavalry barracks (Bldg 27), which now houses administrative offices, was constructed in 1899.</p><br>
<p>Captain Hiram M. Chittenden was the USA Army Corps of Engineers senior engineer in Yellowstone from 1899 to 1906. The Corps had been responsible for road and other infrastructure construction within the park since 1883. In 1901, in cooperation with Captain John Pitcher, Acting Park Superintendent, he began a series of projects to improve the quality of life at the fort. Chittenden had a reservoir built in 1901 to provide a consistent supply of water for irrigation, human consumption and fire fighting. The engineers oversaw a project during 1901 which cleared, manured and seeded the area immediately in front of officers&#39; row to create a grassy parade ground and seeded areas around the various buildings to reduce perennially dusty summer conditions. Fort Yellowstone transitioned from oil to electric lighting in 1902 after Chittenden completed a 100-kilowatt powerplant 300 yd east of the fort. The powerplant and reservoir no longer exist, but most of the grassy areas around Fort Yellowstone that Chittenden planned remain.</p><br>
<p>In 1903, Captain Chittenden oversaw the design and construction of the second stone building in Yellowstone, the engineers headquarters (Bldg 39), often called the "Pagoda" because of its design. This structure is in a prominent but isolated location just north of the fort.</p><br>
<p>Another prominent Yellowstone landmark, the Roosevelt Arch, was constructed in 1903 under the supervision of Chittenden. A north entrance station and gate near Gardiner, Montana, was first suggested by Captains Wilber Wilder and Oscar Brown in 1899. However it was not until 1903 that Chittenden and then-Acting Superintendent Major John Pitcher were able to gain approval for the arch. The ground breaking for the arch coincided with the two-week vacation visit of USA President Theodore Roosevelt to the park. Roosevelt was the only USA President to visit Yellowstone during the army era. On his last day in the park, April 24, 1903, Roosevelt participated in the cornerstone laying ceremony and the arch was completed later that year. In 1904, Major John Pitcher recommended the construction of several new buildings to accommodate the growing contingent of soldiers. The only structure approved was the new post exchange located just south of the double cavalry barracks. This striking Colonial Revival styled structure was completed in 1905, replacing a much smaller post exchange that had been built in 1894. It now functions as the National Park Service canteen.</p><br>
<h3>Later construction period 1908–1913</h3><br>
<p>The second wave of major construction started in 1908 when the largest structures in the fort were built, including the three-story double cavalry barracks (Bldg 36), which now houses the park superintendents office and is used as the modern park headquarters. Another large building was the bachelor officers quarters (Bldg 1), constructed immediately to the west, fronting the parade ground. This iconic building anchors the northwest corner of the main fort area and houses the Horace Albright Visitor Center, a museum, theater and the Yellowstone Forever gift shop.</p><br>
<p>Officers row was completed with the construction of a double captains quarters (Bldg 2) and a field officers quarters (Bldg 3) immediately south of the bachelor officers quarters. Cavalry stables (Bldgs 34 and 38), a double stable guardhouse and blacksmith shop (Bldg 37) were built behind these residences. All these buildings are used by the National Park Service as administrative offices, maintenance facilities or residences.</p><br>
<p>The increasing size of the army contingent required a more up-to-date guardhouse than the original. Acting Superintendents Major Benson and Colonel Brett wanted the new guardhouse to be constructed of stone. The War Department could not justify the expense, so in 1911 the guardhouse was built from concrete.</p><br>
<p>The last building constructed at Fort Yellowstone was the chapel, located just south of the original guardhouse. Army policy did not mandate that army forts provide places of worship. However, at the insistence of park superintendent Pitcher, USA Commissioner Meldrum and Wyoming state senator Francis E. Warren, Congress appropriated the funds for the construction of a chapel in 1909 and the building was finished in January 1913. On September 19, 1914, Katharine Piercy Edmunds and Captain Albert Ady King, 1st USA Cavalry, were the first couple to be married in the new chapel. Reverend Pritchard, an Episcopalian missionary, traveled to the fort from Emigrant, Montana to perform the ceremony.</p><br>
<h3>Remote facilities</h3><br>
<p>To provide shelter for small detachments of soldiers on overnight patrols, the army constructed soldier and snowshoe cabins in remote and isolated spots and at popular tourist locations. Most of these structures no longer exist, but similar, more modern cabins are maintained by the National Park Service throughout the park.</p><br>
<p>The first soldier cabins were built in 1886 as part of Camp Sheridan and all of these were later removed. Cabins were also built at the Lower Geyser Basin, Upper Geyser Basin, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, Riverside and at Soda Butte. As more outposts were needed over the years cabins were constructed at Lake Outlet (1887), Snake River (Polecat Creek), West Thumb and Riverside (1892), Mud Geyser (1895), Norris and Thumb Bay (1897), Lake (1899), Snake River (1902), Gardiner (1903), West Thumb, Syvan Pass and Soda Butte (1904), Tower (1907), Crevice Mountain (1912), Snake River (1914), and Aster Creek, Cabin Creek, Harebell, and Thorofare (1915). Snowshoe cabins in existence in 1899 included small structures at Astringent Creek, Bartlet, Boundary Creek, Coulter Creek, Hellroaring Creek, Lewis River, Park Point, Proposition, Trappers Creek, Trout Creek and Willow Creek. While none of the aforementioned structures are still in existence, four remote structures remain. They include the Buffalo Lake snowshoe cabin (Bldg 234) and the Norris and Bechler River soldier stations (Bldgs 111 and 231). The Norris soldier station currently houses the Museum of the National Park Ranger. Additionally, the Bechler River barn (Bldg 232) is still in existence.</p><br>
<h2>Historical significance of the USA Army in Yellowstone</h2><br>
<p>USA Army management of Yellowstone was so successful that by 1891 they were also managing Sequoia, Yosemite and Kings Canyon National Parks in California and Mackinac National Park in Michigan. The National Park Service later followed the precedents established by the army and incorporated them into their own management strategy. During its tenure at Yellowstone, the army developed regulations that put emphasis on protection of park resources, safety of visitors, and positive but effective visitor interaction. Under the watchful eyes of the army, the geothermal features, forests and wildlife of Yellowstone were protected from vandalism, fire and poaching. These practices were adopted by the National Park Service and continue as a foundation of National Park management policy. Proactive actions by the army in stopping poaching in the park led to the passing of the Lacey Act of 1894, which established legal protection for the wildlife and remedies for dealing with violators.</p><br>
<p>When Company M, 1st USA Cavalry arrived in Yellowstone, Captain Moses Harris, a Civil War Medal of Honor recipient, on his own authority and initiative, promulgated a set of rules that his staff enforced to protect park resources still adhered to in the 21st century:</p><br>
<p>Even though Harris and his soldiers vigilantly enforced the rules, arresting many violators, there was no legal authority for prosecution or punishment. All Harris could do was expel violators from the park.</p><br>
<p>Captain Harris, and his successor, Captain Frazier Augustus Boutelle, established a network of soldier and snowshoe cabins throughout the remote portions of the park. These cabins, strategically located about 10 mi apart, were used by detachments of soldiers throughout the year as they stayed watchful for wildfires, vandalism and poaching. The use of remote ranger cabins for patrolling the park is still practiced by Park Rangers. Captain Young, during his first tour as Acting Superintendent in 1897, established patrol cabin policies that are essentially still followed by Park Rangers. Young required that soldiers using a patrol cabin keep a daily log of activities, including game counts, visitor counts and weather observations. These logs were used to compile a monthly report sent to the headquarters at Fort Yellowstone. Young issued the following orders to all soldiers using the snowshoe cabins.</p><br>
<h3>Wildlife policies</h3><br>
<p>Of the many decisions made by Captain Boutelle in managing the park, his approach to fisheries had significant and lasting impact. Boutelle was an avid angler and recognized the angling potential in Yellowstone waters. In 1889 he suggested the USA Fish Commission consider stocking many of the fish-less lakes and streams in Yellowstone.</p><br>
<p>This suggestion was acted upon and in 1889 the first non-native fish were stocked into Yellowstone waters, a practice that continued until 1955 and helped create the angling experience Yellowstone National Park is renowned for.</p><br>
<p>In 1902, the population of bison in the park had declined to approximately 25 individual animals. Under the leadership of Captain Pitcher, the army began a program of importing plains bison from private domestic herds in Texas and Montana. Fenced enclosures were created at Mammoth and in the Lamar Valley. Areas were ploughed and planted with oats and timothy to feed the captive bison herds as well as the expanding elk herds. The bison enclosure in the Lamar Valley became known as the Lamar Buffalo Ranch. When the army left the park in 1918, the bison population was estimated to have increased to 400 individuals.</p><br>
<h3>Transition to the National Park Service</h3><br>
<p>After serving more than six years as the Acting Superintendent, Major John Pitcher was replaced by Lieutenant General Samuel B.M. Young (USA Army retired) in June 1907. Young was appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, James Rudolph Garfield as full superintendent of the park. Although Young was a senior officer, command of the troops at Fort Yellowstone was given to Major H. T. Allen. Youngs lasting contribution to Fort Yellowstones history was his proposal to replace the army with a force of Civilian Guards. Young, who had served as Acting Superintendent as a Captain in 1897 recognized the dysfunctional and complicated relationships between the War Department, Corps of Engineers and Interior Department which Congress knew was adversely impacting the successful administration of the park. Young&#39;s proposal was not acted upon, but it did set the stage for a decade of change that ultimately saw the creation of the National Park Service in 1916 as well as a Park Ranger force to protect the national parks.</p><br>
<p>Although the cavalry had been successful in protecting the park, by 1914 the average soldier was not cutout for the strenuous, diplomatic and tedious nature of the work, and the high level of training related to cavalry skills. World War I added further impetus to a transition back to civilian management, to relieve the army of a duty that could be performed by civilian rangers. In July 1914, the 1st Cavalry was withdrawn from Yellowstone and replaced with a composite unit of 200 cavalrymen from throughout the army, many of whom had served in Yellowstone previously.</p><br>
<p>Throughout 1915–16, the Interior Department was organizing itself to deal with the growing number of national parks and ultimately, Congress created the National Park Service on August 25, 1916. Prior to the establishment of the National Park Service, in July 1916 the War Department agreed to withdraw troops from Yellowstone as of October 1, 1916, which was the end of the park visitation season. At the same time, the War Department agreed to discharge a select number of the current volunteer cavalry contingent on September 29, 1916, so they could go to work for the National Park Service as Park Rangers.</p><br>
<p>Unfortunately, Congress failed to appropriate funds for the new National Park Service for 1917 and the ranger force was disbanded in the spring of 1917. Political pressure from the Montana Congressional delegation over the loss of economic revenue from the army presence resulted in the recall of the army and 450 soldiers from the 7th Cavalry Regiment were sent back to Fort Yellowstone to protect the park. Administrative control remained with the Interior Department under the supervision of Acting Superintendent Chester Allinson Lindsley, a long time civilian employee in the park. Relations between the army, the Corps of Engineers and the Interior Department continued to be contentious in 1917–1918 as disagreements over proposed construction, ownership of buildings and use of personnel persisted. In 1918, Director of the National Park Service Stephen Mather convinced Congress and the War Department that civilian control of the National Parks under the National Park Service was the right solution. On October 31, 1918, the army left Yellowstone for the last time.</p><br>
<h3>Legacy</h3><br>
<p>John Muir a foremost American naturalist and often called the "Father of the National Parks" once wrote: "Blessings on Uncle Sam&#39;s Soldiers. They have done the job well, and every pine tree is waving its arms for joy."</p><br>
<p>While Yellowstone was under army management, the activities, policies and procedures developed served as precedents for other national parks and subsequent actions by the National Park Service after its formation in 1916. The army solved a wide variety of problems and developed procedures covering a multitude of administrative issues. The military superintendents continued the evolution of park policies and conservation measures initiated by the first civilian administrators. They implemented backcountry patrols, access improvement, wildlife protection and management, protection of natural features, law enforcement and development of a ranger force. The army set precedents for future headquarters area development designs, visitor services such as educational outreach and interpretive tours. Their diligence in dealing with poachers led to legislation that provided for prosecution and punishment of illegal activity. That most of the precedents that the army established were incorporated later by the National Park Service is a lasting legacy of the important role the army played in USA national park history. Modern Park Ranger uniforms are legacies of army management of the park. Most iconically, the campaign hat, a flat-brow peaked hat worn by the cavalry in the last years of army management is nearly identical to the modern hats worn into the 21st century.</p><br>
<h2>Commanding officers</h2><br>
<p>The commanding officer of the Fort Yellowstone troop was designated as the Acting Superintendent of the park, reporting to both the army and the Interior Secretary. The following army officers served in this position at Fort Yellowstone.</p><br>
<p>Captain Moses Harris: August 20, 1886 – May 31, 1889</p><br>
<p>Captain Frazier Augustus Boutelle: June 1, 1889 – February 15, 1891</p><br>
<p>Captain George S. Anderson: February 15, 1891 – June 23, 1897</p><br>
<p>Captain Samuel B. M. Young: June 23, 1897 – November 15, 1897</p><br>
<p>Captain James B. Erwin: November 15, 1897 – March 15, 1899</p><br>
<p>Captain Wilber E. Wilder: March 15, 1899 – June 23, 1899</p><br>
<p>Captain Oscar J. Brown: June 23, 1899 – July 24, 1900</p><br>
<p>Captain George W. Goode: July 24, 1900 – May 8, 1901</p><br>
<p>Captain/Major John Pitcher: May 8, 1901 – June 1, 1907</p><br>
<p>Lt. General Samuel B. M. Young (retired): June 1, 1907 – November 28, 1908</p><br>
<p>Major H. T. Allen (Commander of troops)</p><br>
<p>Major Harry C. Benson: November 28, 1908 – September 30, 1910</p><br>
<p>Colonel Lloyd M. Brett: September 30, 1910 – October 15, 1916</p><br>
<h3>Units assigned</h3><br>
<p>Six different cavalry regiments were stationed off and on during army administration of Yellowstone.</p><br>
<p>1st Cavalry Regiment: 1886–1891, 1900–1902, 1911–1914</p><br>
<p>4th Cavalry Regiment: 1898–1899</p><br>
<p>5th Cavalry Regiment: 1909–1910</p><br>
<p>6th Cavalry Regiment: 1892–1897, 1906–1907</p><br>
<p>8th Cavalry Regiment: 1908</p><br>
<p>Yellowstone Park Detachment: 1915–1916</p><br>
<p>7th Cavalry Regiment: 1917–1918</p><br>
<p>Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens is a botanical garden set in Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It is a City of Pittsburgh historic landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The gardens were founded in 1893 by steel and real-estate magnate Henry Phipps Jr. as a gift to the City of Pittsburgh. Its purpose is to educate and entertain the people of Pittsburgh with formal gardens (Roman, English, etc.) and various species of exotic plants (palm trees, succulents, bonsai, orchids, etc.). Currently, the facilities house elaborate gardens within the fourteen room conservatory itself and on the adjoining grounds. In addition to its primary flora exhibits, the sophisticated glass and metalwork of the Lord & Burnham conservatory offers an interesting example of Victorian greenhouse architecture.</p><br>
<p>Phipps is one of the "greenest" facilities in the world. Moreover, the Center for Sustainable Landscapes, designed to be as environmentally sustainable as possible, is also LEED Platinum certified, and produces all of its own energy.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Phipps Conservatory was founded in 1893 as a gift from Henry Phipps Jr. to the City of Pittsburgh. The Conservatory was designed by Lord & Burnham, for a fee of $100,000. The glasshouse, then consisting of nine display rooms, was completed in August 1893, one year after construction began. On December 7, 1893, the Phipps Conservatory was opened to the public, displaying many plants from the World&#39;s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.</p><br>
<p>Sometime after 1910, the first of the Aquatic Gardens was built. A second pool would be installed in 1939.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the Conservatory was declared a Historic Landmark by the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation. In 1976, the Phipps Conservatory was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In 1993, the Phipps Conservatory, which had been run by the City of Pittsburgh since 1893, became a privately managed, while city owned, non-profit organization.</p><br>
<p>In October 2003, Phipps announced an expansion project. The first phase, a green engineered Welcome Center topped by a neo-Victorian dome, was designed by IKM Incorporated, and completed in 2005. The Production Greenhouses and a Tropical Forest Conservatory were completed in 2006.</p><br>
<p>The Tropical Forest conservatory has a different theme every three years, beginning with the country of Thailand. In addition to a "Research Forest Station" and a "Healer&#39;s Hut" (designed to educate visitors about various cultural topics), there are two waterfalls, several bridges, a stream, and a wide variety of plants from bamboo, orchids and frangipani to plants of economic, cultural, and horticultural value to the people of Thailand. The second theme is "Headwaters of the Amazon," which opened in early 2009.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Phipps teamed with glass artist Dale Chihuly and his Tacoma-based team of glass blowers. They worked together to create a marriage of hand-blown glass and living plants. Following the closing of the exhibit in February, the conservatory retained four prominent pieces (the Welcome Center chandelier, the hanging gold star in the Desert Room, the celadon and purple gilded Fiori in the Tropical Fruit and Spice Room and the bronze, apricot and chartreuse Ikebana in the Palm Court) and subsequently purchased 26 smaller pieces for its permanent collection including six multicolored Macchia (wavy, shell-like bowls), thirteen amber Cattails and seven Paintbrushes, all of which are installed in the Palm Court. The total Chihuly collection is valued at $1.2 million.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, Phipps teamed with another glass artist Hans Godo Frabel to create another stunning exhibit titled "Gardens and Glass." Unlike the Chihuly pieces, Frabel&#39;s work is more realistic, although still whimsical at times. Highlights of this exhibit include Longfellows, intricate glass orchid and lotus plants and various clowns (balancing on either glass playing cards or colored glass balls.) This collaboration was on display until January 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Indoor Gardens</h2><br>
<h3>Palm Court</h3><br>
<p>The Palm Court is the first room visitors see after entering the Conservatory through the main entrance. The Victorian-inspired room contains many species of palm trees. The room contains the original dated plaque from the Conservatory&#39;s opening as well as numerous glass installations by Dale Chihuly. To accommodate the palm trees, the Palm Court has a high glass peak.</p><br>
<p>The original wood and annealed glass in the Palm Court had deteriorated to a point for the need of emergency stabilization in 2008. Renovations began in 1992 and included replacing the upper wood and glass vent sash with aluminum and safety glass, and replacing the vertical wood and glass components with new replicated aluminum extrusions and safety glass glazing to match the original specifications exactly.</p><br>
<h3>Serpentine Room</h3><br>
<p>The Serpentine Room is located west of the Palm Court, connecting it to the Fern Room. The exhibits in the room change with the season for different shows and special exhibits. The room is named for its curved brick-walled pathway. Plants are lined along either side of the pathway, as well as suspended from the peaked ceiling.</p><br>
<p>The room was originally known as the Border Garden, which was redesigned as the present-day Serpentine Room during an 18-month period of extensive renovations starting in 1978.</p><br>
<h3>Fern Room</h3><br>
<p>The Fern Room is located in the west wing at the intersection of the Serpentine Room, the Orchid Room, and the Stove Room. The room contains many ferns, as well as cycads and other ground plants on which ferns commonly grow. The dominant species in the room are representative of the Triassic, during which ferns and cycads were common as flowering plants would not evolve until millennia later. Some species include Munch&#39;s cycad, Eastern Cape cycad, Zululand cycad, Queen sago, Staghorn fern, Australian tree fern, Tasmanian tree fern, tongue fern, bear&#39;s paw fern, and rabbit foot&#39;s fern.</p><br>
<h3>Orchid Room</h3><br>
<p>The Orchid Room is located in the north part of the west wing. The room contains many orchids. This includes the miniature orchids and the Barbara Tisherman Slipper Orchid Collection, curated in collaboration with the Orchid Society of Western Pennsylvania. Also on display is the unique Phalaenopsis Frank Sarris orchid, named for the founder of Sarris Candies, a trustee and benefactor of the Conservatory.</p><br>
<p>The room originated with a donation of 800 rare orchids in 1931 from Charles D. Armstrong, owner of the Armstrong Cork Company. The orchids were then valued at $50,000.</p><br>
<h3>Stove Room</h3><br>
<p>The Stove Room is located in the south part of the west wing. The plants in the room are representative of the deep tropics, and the room is maintained at a temperature of 80 &deg;F during the day and 70 &deg;F during the night.</p><br>
<h3>South Conservatory</h3><br>
<p>The South Conservatory is located south of the Palm Court. The room houses seasonal flower shows. Since 1999, during fall and winter months, the room transforms into the Garden Railroad exhibit, in which miniature trains wind among a variety of small plants.</p><br>
<p>Originally called the Economic Room, the South Conservatory was built between 1896 and 1897 as a gift from Henry Phipps. It was then remodelled in the 1930s, during which time the room was partitioned to separate the Gallery and Tropical Fruit and Spice rooms.</p><br>
<h3>Tropical Fruit and Spice Room</h3><br>
<p>The Tropical Fruit and Spice Room is located west of the South Conservatory. The room contains tropical and sub-tropical fruits, nuts, and spices such as citrus fruits, bananas, allspice, papayas, cinnamon and coffee. The marble basin in the center of the room features a Dale Chihuly glass sculpture in purple and celadon.</p><br>
<h3>Tropical Forest Conservatory</h3><br>
<p>The Tropical Forest Conservatory, located south of the South Conservatory, is the largest indoor display area of the conservatory.</p><br>
<p>The room features a different region every three years, and contains man-made waterfalls, winding pathways, a fish pond, and interactive learning stations. It is also the site of many of the public programs and special events at the Conservatory. As of 2015, the region features the Tropical Forest Congo exhibit.</p><br>
<p>The Tropical Forest Conservatory opened on December 6, 2006. The Tropical Forest Conservatory has several interesting features, which make it extremely energy-efficient. It has "earth tubes" running underground to help cool the tropical forest and a solid oxide fuel cell, which efficiently produces 5 kW of electricity from natural gas. In addition, there are computer-controlled shades that block excess sunlight from entering the structure and also help to insulate it at night. The roof is also computer-controlled and many of the glass panes can be opened.</p><br>
<p>History of exhibits:</p><br>
<p>2006 - Thailand</p><br>
<p>2009 - Peru</p><br>
<p>2012 - India</p><br>
<p>2015 - Congo</p><br>
<p>2018 - Cuba</p><br>
<p>2022 - Hawaii</p><br>
<h3>Gallery Room</h3><br>
<p>The Gallery Room is located east of the South Conservatory. The room contains didactic displays for children, such as the imaginary farmer&#39;s market, where children can play and learn about healthy food.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s and 1960s, the room was known as the Modern Room, and featured contemporary room and garden scenes.</p><br>
<h3>Sunken Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Sunken Garden is located east of the Palm Court, connecting it to the Victoria Room. The room is furnished with fountains, hanging baskets, and sunken beds. The plants in the room vary with season. The room has changed several times over the decades. It has been known, at different times, as the Cascade Garden featuring a modern cascading waterfall; the Charleston Garden featuring an antebellum-themed display with a Southern mansion façade; and, more recently, a Japanese-style garden.</p><br>
<h3>Desert Room</h3><br>
<p>The Desert Room is located south of the Sunken Garden. The room contains plant life that thrive in a desert climate, such as cacti and other succulent plants. A glass chandelier named Desert Gold Star by Dale Chihuly can also be found in the room. Some species include the Joshua tree, saguaro, palo verde, fire barrels, cape aloe, tortoise shell plant, bushman poison bulb, African tree grape, sunrise tequila agave, and shaving brush tree.</p><br>
<p>The Desert Room opened in 1902 as the Cacti House. When it first opened, guests could only look at the display garden over a terrace. In the late 1930s, the room was redesigned so that visitors could walk through it.</p><br>
<h3>Victoria Room</h3><br>
<p>The Victoria Room is located in the east wing, connecting the Broderie Room, the East Room, and the Sunken Garden. The room features a large central pond containing an interactive fountain.</p><br>
<h3>Broderie Room</h3><br>
<p>The Broderie Room, also known as the Parterre de Broderie which translates to "flowerbed of embroidery", is located in the south part of the east wing. The garden is modelled after the formal gardens of French chateaux during the reign of Louis XIV, and is a popular setting for wedding ceremonies and photo shoots. The room opened in 1939 and was originally called the Cloister Garden. In 1966, the room was redesigned as the present-day Broderie Room.</p><br>
<h3>East Room</h3><br>
<p>The East Room is located in the north part of the east wing. The room contains streams and waterfalls. The displays change with season.</p><br>
<h2>Outdoor Gardens</h2><br>
<h3>Rooftop Edible Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Rooftop Edible Garden is located between the Desert Room and the Tropical Forest Conservatory. It contains several edible vegetables and fruits. The outdoor demonstration space produces fresh produce for the cafeteria in the Welcome Center and serves as a site of hands-on learning for children&#39;s camps and youth programs.</p><br>
<h3>Japanese Courtyard Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Japanese Courtyard Garden is located between the Desert Room and the Gallery Room. It contains a Japanese garden and several bonsai. The Garden was installed in 1991 and was designed by Hoichi Kurisu.</p><br>
<h3>Children&#39;s Discovery Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Children&#39;s Discovery Garden is located between the Stove Room and the Tropical Spices room. The Garden contains areas designed to attract birds, butterflies, and bees. It also includes a bog garden, a sensory garden, and various outdoor spaces to entertain and educate children.</p><br>
<h3>Outdoor Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Outdoor Garden is located to the northwest of the main building complex. The garden contains many smaller gardens and plant collections, including an herb garden, a medicinal garden, perennials, ferns and dwarf conifers.</p><br>
<p>The original hardscape was constructed by Works Progress Administration in 1935 and persists to this day. The garden was originally known as the Perennial Garden, which was transformed into the Outdoor Garden in 1986.</p><br>
<h3>Botany Hall</h3><br>
<p>The Botany Hall, across from Panther Hollow Bridge, features a small garden containing walkways, curved benches, and a fountain. The Botany Hall was funded, in 1901, by Henry Phipps to be used by local teachers looking to enhance class trips to the glasshouse. It was renovated in the late 1990s and continues to serve as a site for many educational programs and events.</p><br>
<h3>Aquatic Garden</h3><br>
<p>The Aquatic garden is located on the east side of the Conservatory outside of the Victoria Room. During the summer, the two pools are filled with tropical water plants and floating flora. One of the pools features a statue of Neptune, the Roman god of the sea, which was presented to Phipps shortly after the conservatory opened in 1893. The northern pool was constructed sometime between 1910 and 1915, and the southern one was added in 1939.</p><br>
<h2>Center for Sustainable Landscapes</h2><br>
<p>The Center for Sustainable Landscapes (CSL) is a building on the Conservatory grounds, located south of the Tropical Forest Conservatory, that is designed to be environmentally sustainable. Opened in December 2012, the building produces all of its own energy and treats and reuses all water captured on site. The exhibits in the building include informational signs, an interactive kiosk, and art exhibits. The building also contains a classroom for children.</p><br>
<p>The CSL has received a Platinum LEED certification along with fulfilling the Living Building Challenge for net-zero energy, Additionally, the CSL is the first and only building to receive http://www.sustainablesites.org/certified-sites/phipps Four Stars Sustainable SITES Initiative certification for landscaping projects. These honors and certifications make the CSL one of the &#39;greenest&#39; buildings in the world.</p><br>
<p>Malbone is one of the oldest mansions in Newport, Rhode Island. The original mid-18th century estate was the country residence of Col. Godfrey Malbone of Virginia and Connecticut. The main house burned down during a dinner party in 1766 and the remaining structure sat dormant for many years until New York lawyer Jonathan Prescott Hall built a new roughly 5,800 ft2 castellated residence directly on top of the old ivy-covered ruins.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Located on Malbone Road, the estate has a history dating to the mid-18th century, but the present main house was built in 1848–49. The estate once served as the country residence of Colonel Godfrey Malbone (1695–1768) of Virginia and Connecticut. Colonel Malbone made his fortune as a shipping merchant and slave trader, becoming one of the wealthiest men in Newport during the 1740s through privateering and the triangle trade. Malbone&#39;s 1741 mansion was designed by Richard Munday, a noted colonial architect who also designed Newport landmarks Trinity Church and the Old Colony House.</p><br>
<p>Future President George Washington boarded and dined at Malbone in February 1756 when he visited Col. Malbone, who was Washingtons friend dating back to Malbones childhood in Virginia. In 1766, during the course of a gala dinner party, a kitchen fire reduced the house to a pile of sandstone rubble. By several accounts, Colonel Malbone, seeing no reason why the party should be interrupted, ordered dinner to be served outside, proclaiming, "By God, if I must lose my house, I shall not lose my dinner!"</p><br>
<p>From 1766, the year of the fire, until the 1840s, the ruins of Malbone&#39;s estate was a popular attraction among Newporters.</p><br>
<h3>1840s mansion</h3><br>
<p>In 1848 a new mansion was built directly on top of the old ivy-covered ruins by Mr. & Mrs. Jonathan Prescott Hall. Hall was an eminent New York lawyer and direct descendant of two signers of the Declaration of Independence.</p><br>
<p>The Halls commissioned Alexander Jackson Davis, a notable 19th-century New York architect, to design a house of pink Connecticut sandstone in the popular Gothic revival style of the time, incorporating some original elements such as the porte-cochere from the previous home. Hall, the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, died in September 1862. In 1875, the house&#39;s interiors were remodeled under the supervision of noted local architect Dudley Newton who added a "massive carved oak staircase." The mansion remained in the same family for over 130 years, serving as the summer "cottage" of the Morris-Bedlow family (including Lewis Gouverneur Morris), a prominent family from New York who held positions of social and political prominence in America and Newport in the 18th and 19th centuries.</p><br>
<p>Malbone Estate had some of the most prominent formal gardens in America during the 18th and 19th centuries. The gardens were originally established by Col. Malbone to the south of the house because it was from this direction that visitors and merchants from Newport town would approach the estate. Prescott Hall renovated these gardens from 1848 to 1850, expanding them to 17 acres and enlisting Andrew Jackson Downing, the leading landscape designer of the 1840s and an advocate of architectural philosophy. Downing partnered with Calvert Vaux to design the White House grounds and National Mall and is widely regarded as the "Father of American Landscape Architecture." The Malbone Gardens have been recently restored with an emphasis on the brick pathways lined by boxwoods, the central stone waterway, four prominent weeping willows, and the carriage path lined by beech trees, all remnants of Downing&#39;s original 1848 design.</p><br>
<h3>Current ownership</h3><br>
<p>The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. The grounds of the estate "contain the largest collection of European beech trees in North America."</p><br>
<p>The Morris family bequeathed Malbone to the Preservation Society of Newport County in 1978, who sold the estate to Patricia and Philip Archer Thomas in 1980. Around 1994, the 17 acre Malbone estate was acquired by James Leach, who hosted USA Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg there in 2004. In 2013, Leach listed the estate for sale for $2.2 million, and it was purchased by the Brede Family of Wellesley, Massachusetts. The house remains a private residence to this day.</p><br>
<p>EAST FRONT, LOOKING WEST - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-2.tifEast front, looking West</p><br>
<p>DINING ROOM WING FROM THE NORTHEAST - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-4.tifDining room wing from the Northeast</p><br>
<p>SOUTH FLANK FROM THE SOUTHWEST - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-3.tifSouth flank from the Southwest</p><br>
<p>WEST FLANK FROM THE NORTHWEST, CLOSER VIEW - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-6.tifWest flank from the Northwest</p><br>
<p>WEST FLANK FROM THE NORTHWEST, DISTANT VIEW - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-5.tifWest flank from the Northwest</p><br>
<p>DINING ROOM, LOOKING NORTH - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-14.tifDining room</p><br>
<p>PARLOR, LOOKING SOUTH - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-11.tifNorth parlor</p><br>
<p>FRONT HALL FIREPLACE, LOOKING SOUTHWEST - Malbone, Malbone Road, Newport, Newport County, RI HABS RI,3-NEWP,62-10.tifFront hall</p><br>
<p>The Grand Circus Park Historic District contains the 5 acre Grand Circus Park in Downtown Detroit, Michigan that connects the theatre district with its financial district. It is bisected by Woodward Avenue, four blocks north of Campus Martius Park, and is roughly bounded by Clifford, John R. and Adams Streets. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A part of Augustus Woodwards plan to rebuild the city after the fire of 1805, the city established the park in 1850. Woodwards original plan called for the park to be a full circle, but after construction began, property owners north of Adams Street were reluctant to sell due to rising land values. The Detroit Opera House overlooks the eastern edge of the park and the grounds include statuary and large fountains. Near this historic site, General George Armstrong Custer delivered a eulogy for thousands gathered to mourn the death of President Abraham Lincoln. Architect Henry Bacon designed the Russell Alger Memorial Fountain (1921) in Grand Circus Park. Bacon&#39;s other projects include the Lincoln Memorial (1915–1922) in Washington, D.C. The fountain contains a classic Roman figure symbolizing Michigan by American sculptor Daniel French who sculpted the figure of Lincoln for the Memorial.</p><br>
<p>In 1957, the City of Detroit constructed a parking garage under the two halves of the park. The eastern portion houses space for 250 cars and the western portion accommodates 540.</p><br>
<p>The half-moon shaped park is divided down its center by Woodward Avenue, the city&#39;s main thoroughfare. The Alger Fountain anchors the eastern half and is capped on its north western edge with a statue of mayor William Cotter Maybury. Its western half is anchored by the Edison Fountain and capped on its north eastern edge with a statue of mayor Hazen Pingree.</p><br>
<p>The Maybury and Pingree monuments have been relocated several times. The Pingree statue was erected in 1904 near Woodward and Park Avenues facing south, while his rival, Maybury, occupied a site in the eastern half of the park facing Pingree across Woodward Avenue. After the 1957 garage construction, Pingree was returned to his original site while Maybury was placed at the north boundary of the park with his back to his foe. In the 1990s, both statues moved once again to their current locations.</p><br>
<p>Among the notable buildings encircling the park are the David Broderick Tower and David Whitney Building on the south, Kales Building, and Central United Methodist Church on the north, and Comerica Park and Detroit Opera House on the East.</p><br>
<h2>Development</h2><br>
<p>On November 12, 2007, Quicken Loans announced its development agreement with the city to move its headquarters to downtown Detroit, consolidating about 4,000 of its suburban employees in a move considered to be a high importance to city planners to reestablish the historic downtown. The construction sites reserved for development under the agreement include the location of the former Statler on Grand Circus Park and the former Hudson&#39;s location. (The western edge of the park was formerly home to the now demolished Statler and Tuller hotels). Grand Circus is serviced by a People Mover station.</p><br>
<h2>East necklace</h2><br>
<p>The Detroit Opera House is located at Broadway and Grand Circus. The east necklace of downtown links Grand Circus and the stadium area to Greektown along Broadway. The east necklace contains a sub-district sometimes called the Harmonie Park District, which has taken on the renowned legacy of Detroit&#39;s music from 1930s through the 1950s to the present. Near the Opera House, and emanating from Grand Circus along the east necklace are other venues including the Music Hall Center for the Performing Arts and the Gem Theatre and Century Club. The historic Harmonie Club and Harmonie Centre are located along Broadway. The Harmonie Park area ends near Gratiot and Randolph. The Detroit Athletic Club stands in view of center field at Comerica Park. Part of the east necklace, the area contains architecturally notable buildings planned for renovation as high-rise residential condominiums such as the Gothic Revival Metropolitan Building at 33 John R Street. The Hilton Garden Inn is also in the Harmonie Park area. The east necklace area is serviced by the People Mover at the Cadillac and Broadway Stations.</p><br>
<p>The Wagner Free Institute of Science is a natural history museum at 1700 West Montgomery Avenue in north Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1855, it is a rare surviving example of a Victorian era scientific society, with a museum, research center, library, and educational facilities. Its buildings, developed between 1859 and 1901, present the collections of founder William Wagner in the style of the period, and have been designated a National Historic Landmark for their architecture and state of preservation.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Wagner Free Institute was founded in 1855 by William Wagner, a merchant, philanthropist, and gentleman scientist of the time, who sought to offer free educational courses to all who would seek to learn about the natural world. Wagner began offering free lectures on science at his home, Elm Grove, a colonial farm estate on the outskirts of Philadelphia in 1847. To illustrate the lectures, he drew on a collection of specimens he had gathered since his boyhood. All of the classes were offered with an open admission policy that allowed women as well as men to attend. These lectures became so popular that by 1855 he moved them first to a public hall to accommodate the rapidly growing audience, and later to its permanent home designed by Philadelphia architect John McArthur Jr., who would go on to design Philadelphia&#39;s City Hall.</p><br>
<p>Wagner continued to lecture and to lead the unique institution until his death in 1885. The Board of Trustees then appointed Joseph Leidy, a biologist of international reputation, to head its scientific and educational programs. Leidys appointment ushered in an active and productive era in which the Institutes mission and programs were greatly expanded. Leidys most lasting and significant contribution to the Institute was his reorganization of the Institutes museum. He greatly enlarged Wagners original collection by further field collection, purchases and other acquisitions. Leidy personally developed and supervised their reorganization into a systematic display in which specimens and cases were arranged according to Darwins theory of evolution, so that visitors moved from simpler to more complex organisms and through geologic time as they walked through the exhibition hall. This new display opened in 1891 and little has been altered since Leidy&#39;s time, making the Institute an exceptional example of a Victorian era science museum. In 1892, the first branch of the Philadelphia Public Library, later becoming the Free Library of Philadelphia, opened at the Wagner Institute. The branch remained open until 1962.</p><br>
<p>The Institute has continued to carry out Wagners initial goals of offering free science courses, while also functioning as a library, lecture hall and museum. The museum maintains more than 100,000 specimens, including minerals and fossils collected by Wagner. Today, the Wagner Free Institute of Science is widely recognized as one of Philadelphias historical treasures. While preserving its historic building and collections for future generations, the Institute also serves as a rich educational resource for programs on science, natural history, and the history of science from the 19th century to the present. The Wagner has received support from the National Endowment for the Humanities to preserve the building and its collection.</p><br>
<p>WagnerInstitute.pngModern photograph</p><br>
<p>WagnerFreeInstitute.jpgSecond-floor Hall and galleries.</p><br>
<p>Fort Lyon was composed of two 19th-century military fort complexes in southeastern Colorado. The initial fort, also called Fort Wise, operated from 1860 to 1867. After a flood in 1866, a new fort was built near Las Animas, Colorado, which operated as a military post until 1897.</p><br>
<p>It has been used as a United States Army fort, a sanatorium, a neuropsychiatry facility, and a minimum security prison. The state closed the prison in 2011, and in early 2013 proposed to use the site as a rehabilitation center for homeless people. Then in late 2013 it became a rehabilitative transitional housing facility for homeless people with some form of substance abuse problem. This is run by the Colorado Coalition for the Homeless and has been a developing program to the present day.</p><br>
<p>The fort is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Part of the site, the Fort Lyon National Cemetery, which began burials in 1907, remains open.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Fort Lyon (1860–1867)</h3><br>
<p>In July 1860, the Army rented Bent&#39;s New Fort and used it for storage of annuity goods for the Cheyenne and Arapaho. Annuity goods were provided by treaties in exchange for reduced access to ancestral land, such as hunting grounds. Barracks were built around the fort</p><br>
<p>At the same time (1860) the Army constructed a new fort about one-half mile west of Bents New Fort adjacent to the Arkansas river, naming it Fort Wise for Henry A. Wise, the governor of Virginia. After the start of the American Civil War and Virginias secession from the Union, it was renamed Fort Lyon in 1862 for Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon, who had been the first Union general killed in the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>In 1861, the Treaty of Fort Wise was signed at the fort. The goal, which was short-lived, was to ensure peace between settlers and the Cheyenne and Arapaho people. Old Fort Lyon was the staging post used by Colonel John Chivington in 1864 as he led an attack on friendly Cheyenne and Arapaho camps that became known as the Sand Creek massacre. To prevent word spreading of the impending attack, Chivington had guards posted at the fort to prevent people and mail from reaching Sand Creek.</p><br>
<p>In 1866 after flooding on the Arkansas River, the USA Army relocated Ft. Lyon 20 miles upstream to a site near Las Animas. The new facility was completed in 1867 and the old site, including Bent&#39;s New Fort, was abandoned.</p><br>
<h3>Fort Lyon (1867–1897)</h3><br>
<p>In 1867, a new fort called Fort Lyon was built near the present-day town of Las Animas, Colorado. The USA Army used Fort Lyon until 1897, when they abandoned it after the end of the Indian Wars.</p><br>
<h3>Medical, prison, and psychiatric facilities</h3><br>
<p>In 1906, the USA Navy opened a sanatorium there to treat sailors and Marines with tuberculosis. The dry climate and rest by isolation at the fort were thought to be beneficial by contemporary treatment methods. On 22 June 1922, the Veteran&#39;s Bureau assumed operations. In 1930, administration of the hospital was transferred to the newly created Veterans Administration. Within three years, the VA designated Fort Lyon a neuropsychiatry facility. In 2001 the hospital was closed and the facility was turned over to the state of Colorado for conversion to a minimum security prison. The prison was closed in 2011.</p><br>
<p>In September 2013, Governor John Hickenlooper announced that Fort Lyon had reopened as an isolated transitional housing facility for homeless people with substance abuse issues operated by the Colorado Coalition for the Homeless. As of November 2018, there were over 200 clients there.</p><br>
<p>Logan Circle, also known as Logan Square, is an open-space park in Center City Philadelphia&#39;s northwest quadrant and one of the five original planned squares laid out on the city grid. The centerpiece of the park is the Logan Circle, a circular area centered on a large water feature, bounded by a traffic circle carrying 19th Street and the Benjamin Franklin Parkway with connections to 18th and 20th streets to the east and west and Race and Vine Streets to the south and north.</p><br>
<p>The circle exists within the original bounds of the square; the names Logan Square and Logan Circle are used interchangeably when referring to the park. Originally "Northwest Square" in William Penn&#39;s 1684 plan for the city, the square was renamed in 1825 after Philadelphia statesman James Logan. The park is the focal point of the eponymous neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Logan Square was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1981.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>Prior to the 1800s the city developed along the Delaware River, leaving the area around Logan Square as untouched forest through the American Revolution. Over the next quarter century the square served as a pasture, graveyard, and execution grounds which hosted a gallows until the hanging of William Gross on February 7, 1823. The City of Philadelphia leased the square to the Orphans&#39; Society from 1821 to 1830. While some have suggested that the lease for a “good and noble purpose” was an aim at redirecting public attention away from its previous morbid use following Gross’s death, that is probably revisionist since the lease was executed two full years prior to the last public hanging in the “city of brotherly love”.</p><br>
<p>In 1842, an ordinance “made it an offense to drive or take into Logan, Penn, or Rittenhouse squares any ‘horse, cow, cart, wagon, carriage or wheelbarrow, except by permission, or place any wood, coal, rubbish, carrion, or offensive matter within either of the squares, or to climb on the trees, fences or gates... or to dig up the soil or injure the grass, or to run or walk over or lie on the same.’” By the 1840s Philadelphia had begun a restoration of the square from its former days as a graveyard, lining the walks with trees, planting greenery and shrubbery, and constructing a wooden fence allowing the square to resemble Penn&#39;s vision of an urban green space. During this period, the city limited access to Logan Square to homeowners with property connected to the square who paid for its upkeep; the city constructed a wrought iron fence around the square in 1852.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, the square was the site of the Great Sanitary Fair, a fundraising event in support of the United States Sanitary Commission to help raise money, support, and buy medicine for the Union troops during the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln visited the fair and donated forty-eight signed copies of the Emancipation Proclamation, which sold for $10 each. In 1881 the Pennsylvania Railroad constructed a viaduct that disconnected Logan Square and Rittenhouse Square, altering William Penn’s original plan of connectivity between the city&#39;s five squares.</p><br>
<p>The square was used as a location for concerts and other community events.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1890s, the city had envisioned constructing of a boulevard similar to the Parisian Champs-Élysées.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1907, the plans were approved. The square began to transform again: the original bounds of the square were 18th Street to the east, 20th Street to the west, Race Street to the south, and Vine Street to the north remain intact, and the square began to more closely resemble its appearance today, distinguished by its circle.</p><br>
<p>Construction began in 1917 on a plan to connect Center City with Fairmount Park which later became a segment of Benjamin Franklin Parkway. It was designed by Jacques Gréber, a French landscape architect who converted Logan Square into a circle similar to the oval of the Place de la Concorde in Paris. Philadelphia even modeled its Free Library and Family Court Building after the twin buildings of the Hôtel de Crillon and the Hôtel de la Marine in Paris.</p><br>
<p>Among the sites in its immediate vicinity are the Swann Memorial Fountain at the center of the circle, Parkway Central Library, the former Philadelphia Family Court Building, the Academy of Natural Sciences, the Franklin Institute, Moore College of Art and Design, the Roman Catholic Cathedral-Basilica of Sts. Peter and Paul, and the Mormon Philadelphia Pennsylvania Temple.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In early 2005, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS) began efforts to clean up and redevelop the park to make it more accessible and inviting to pedestrians. Most noticeably the large paulownia trees that featured prominently round the fountain were removed. City planners with PHS had determined that they had reached the end of their life span and had become an eyesore. They were replaced with similar trees grown especially for Logan Square at Longwood Gardens as part of a larger plan to improve the space. PHS planted lush perennial gardens around the fountain and adjacent parcels and maintain the gardens throughout the year.</p><br>
<p>The city undertook an extensive rehabilitation plan and by 2012 the city had refurbished the original squares with restoration and new greenery bringing the Parkway’s entertainment capabilities full-circle.</p><br>
<p>The city has expressed support of transitioning the circle back into a square, and increasing its aesthetic nature as an urban green space.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>When Pope John Paul II visited the city in 1979, he celebrated mass in the plaza on October 3, 1979.</p><br>
<p>To commemorate the end of every school year since the 1960s, the newly appointed Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors of J. W. Hallahan Catholic Girls High School jump into the fountain. The event is the subject of much local media coverage throughout Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, it was the starting location for the Women&#39;s March on Philadelphia.</p><br>
<p>In April 2017, Logan Circle hosted the 2017 NFL draft.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The band The Wonder Years has a song named after Logan Circle on their album The Upsides.</p><br>
<p>The emo band Algernon Cadwallader&#39;s song "Spit Fountain" references the statues in Swann Fountain.</p><br>
<p>Moccasin Bend Archeological District is an archeological site in Chattanooga, Tennessee, that is part of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park unit. The National Park Service refers to it as one of the "most unique units found in the entire National Park Service." The area contains remnants of 12,000 years of continuous human habitation and serves as an area with unique cultural significance. For many years, there was little recognition of the historical significance of the area, and years of industrial development occurred on and around sites of archeological importance. After decades of campaigning by concerned citizens, private organizations, local officials, the Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park, and finally a state representative, the area was officially recognized as a National Archeological District in 2003. Moccasin Bend is currently undergoing a process of renovation and restoration that will allow the area to fulfill the National Park Service&#39;s mission of preserving "natural and cultural resources" for the "enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations."</p><br>
<p>The 956 acre area is located directly across the Tennessee River from Lookout Mountain, site of an American Civil War battle. The archeological district is significant due to the prevalence of historic artifacts found within some of the most historically important Native American sites in the United States. Moccasin Bend was a part of the Trail of Tears and also played a vital role in the American Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Moccasin Bend National Archeological District</h2><br>
<p>In 2003, with the help of USA Representative Zach Wamp, the Friends of Moccasin Bend, and community leaders, the Moccasin Bend National Archeological District was created as part of the Chickamauga National Military Park. This designation made Moccasin Bend the first and only National Archeological District in the entire National Park Service. The area of land known as Moccasin Bend is a 1,000 acre peninsula sitting on the edge of the Tennessee River. Most of the land on the peninsula became the property of the federal government, excluding the already existing facilities mentioned previously. This created a rather fragmented park with distinct and diverse parts. The core area of the District resides on the southern tip of the Bend. This area includes Civil War resources and important American Indian sites. Upon its adoption into the National Park Service, various projects began intended to survey the landscape, investigate sites of archeological significance, stabilize at risk areas, and explore potential opportunities to develop the land as a park. The Friends of Moccasin Bend, alongside the National Park Service, sought to implement such amenities as an interpretive center. Plans for this interpretive center are currently in the works.</p><br>
<p>Just as the creation of the park was relatively slow going, so has been the process of developing the Bend&#39;s park aspects. The fragmented nature of the park and its history of industrial and commercial use has made the transition into a thriving area of cultural and historical significance a challenge. In order to move forward with some of the proposed plans for development, there are areas of land that need to be acquired from their current landowners. This has proved to be a difficult task. Despite these challenges, efforts are still being made to continue progress at Moccasin Bend and strive towards the goal of a unique experience through facilitated preservation, protection, and interpretation of the area. These efforts are largely spearheaded by the Friends of Moccasin Bend. While the Friends of Moccasin Bend and the National Park Service work with the city to move forward on the proposed plans, there are currently some limited recreational opportunities and amenities.</p><br>
<h3>Current Amenities</h3><br>
<p>While areas of the park continue to be developed, there are a few key areas that are currently accessible to the public and allow a glimpse into the unique landscape of Moccasin Bend. The National Archeological District includes a 10.5 acre meadow that has been designated the future site of an interpretive center. The area is located on Hamm Road, a crucial gateway that runs through Moccasin Bend. It is surrounded by industrial tracts of land and is not connected to any other NPS-owned areas. This site, unlike most other tracts of land within the National Archeological District, is unlikely to contain archeological resources. This feature made it the desired location for the pending interpretive center, which would include development such as a parking lot and restrooms. This site will serve as a vital access point for public visitors.</p><br>
<p>The is a 1.5 mile hiking trail located within the National Archeological District. This trail existed before the Bend&#39;s designation as part of a National Park. Prior to the federal governments acquisition of this land, the Blue Blazes Trail, established by members of the Sierra Club, was under city/county management. The trail is low lying and contains numerous wetlands, with numerous muddy patches throughout. Although efforts are being made to make walking through the muddy patches possible. Currently there are no interpretive signs along this trail, but there are numerous areas of historical significance nearby, including the site where multiple Paleo-era projectile points were found. There is public access to the trails through the trailhead, adjacent to a gravel lot.</p><br>
<p>is a 98-acre tract of land owned by the National Park Service. The area was the former site of Moccasin Bend Speedway and also contains portions of land that were part of the John Brown Reservation. The site is now home to a 1.2 mile roundtrip hike that traverses over a part of the tract that was used during the Trail of Tears. Additionally, this road was used to transport Union supplies during the Civil War in 1863. This trail is marked by interpretive signs explaining some of the historical and cultural significance of the route. This trail is also open to the public and can be accessed through a parking lot located on Moccasin Bend Road.</p><br>
<h3>Sites of Significance</h3><br>
<p>Moccasin Bend, as per its designation as a National Historic Landmark and its place on the National Register of Historic Places contains a plethora of sites with archeological, cultural, and historical significance. The primary significance of this area falls within the context of American Indian history and American Civil War history. The 12,000 years of human inhabitation have left a number of rare artifacts that contribute to this sites importance. The primary archeological site at Moccasin Bend is Hampton Place. This area contains two Late Mississippian towns that were perhaps visited by Spanish explorers, as revealed through the presence of Spanish artifacts. Prior to the Bend&#39;s designation as a National Archeological District, Hampton Place was heavily looted and vandalized, leaving little visible evidence of the once prominent archeological complex. Another important site within Moccasin Bend is the Mallards Dozen Site, an area that contains remnants of Middle Woodland civilization. Most of the archeological evidence contributing to this knowledge is not currently visible. However, portions of the site are accessible via the Blue Blazes Trail.</p><br>
<p>The Vulcan Site includes remains from the Archaic and Woodland periods. This includes a Late Archaic period house that is dated to 1335 B.C. considered to be one of the earliest family houses in the southeastern United States. Parts of the Vulcan Site are included in the Blue Blazes Trail as well as on the Moccasin Bend Golf Course. As with the other sites, the archeological site is not currently visible. The Woodland Mound Complex is located on the southern tip of Moccasin Bend and is within the confines of the Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute. These mounds are attributed to burial practices of the Late Woodland period. Because of the mounds&#39; proximity to the mental health facility, access is limited.</p><br>
<p>As indicated by the presence of Browns Ferry Federal Road, John Brown, who operated Browns Ferry, the site of a historic Civil War Battle, Moccasin Bend was the site of his homestead. While this contributes to the historical significance of Moccasin Bend, few remnants remain of John Brown&#39;s inhabitance on Moccasin Bend. There are a number of other Civil War sites located on the southern tip of Stringers Ridge. These sites were occupied by the Union Army during 1863. The historic roads that mark this period of time are still usable today, and multiple sites can be observed from Stringers Ridge.</p><br>
<h2>Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park</h2><br>
<p>This organization was established in 1994 to serve as an advocacy group for the adoption of Moccasin Bend into the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. The organization was instrumental in leading to the creation of the park and continues to be actively involved in the parks management and policies. At the time of its creation, the plans for Moccasin Bends future were still very much up for debate. After the idea had been shut down for decades, the Friends of Moccasin Bend revitalized the idea of adding Moccasin Bend to the Chickamauga Chattanooga National Military Park. They conducted an economic impact report of making the area part of the National Park Service and concluded that it would have a positive economic impact on the city. The Friends continued to be advocates for establishing the area as part of a National Park. They reached out to state representatives and helped build support from the community.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, USA Representative Zach Wamp proposed HR 980, which called for the creation of Moccasin Bend National Archeological District as part of the Chickamauga National Military Park. The bill was finally passed in 2003. In 2004, the Archeological District was officially established after the state and local government donated 672 acres of public land to the federal government (the boundaries of the park excluded already existing facilities: Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute, Moccasin Bend Golf Course, the WDEF radio tower, the Hamilton County firing range, and a model airplane facility). The Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park were instrumental in this process.</p><br>
<p>The organization, established a decade prior to the areas designation as a National Archeological District, remained active until 2017. According to their now decommissioned website, they worked alongside the National Park Service to develop "outstanding visitor experiences at one of Americas newest national park areas." In addition, they supported the National Park Service in its endeavors towards "preservation, protection, and interpretation of the cultural, historical, and natural resources of the Moccasin Bend National Archeological District..."The Friends of Moccasin Bend, a non-profit organization, served as the grass roots organizers, fund raisers, and overall advocates for the park. They ensured that the park was not lost in the shuffle of federal government bureaucracy, and continues to move forward as the valuable asset that it is to Chattanooga.</p><br>
<p>After the Moccasin Bend National Archeological District officially became part of the NPS General Management Plan, Friends of Moccasin Bend merged with the already existing Friends of the Park group that had formed in 1986 for the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, and in 2018 became National Park Partners: Chickamauga - Chattanooga - Moccasin Bend. worked with the National Park Service to launch a capital campaign for the new visitor and interpretive center on Hamm Road. This campaign was successful, planning for the construction of the center is currently underway.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, the State of Tennessee announced plans to use Cares Act funding to build a new mental health hospital on Moccasin Bend to replace the aging Moccasin Bend State Mental Health Institute. The announcement stirred public outcry against new construction within the National Historic Landmark Boundary, and prompted National Park Partners to launch a second phase of their Forever Moccasin Bend campaign. This phase has been dubbed "" in reference to slogans used by Friends of Moccasin Bend and other groups during previous efforts to preserve Moccasin Bend. Several former members of Friends of Moccasin Bend have also stepped forward to speak out against the new construction.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Paleo-Indian to Mississippian Periods (10500 BC – AD 1630)</h3><br>
<p>Native Americans used this land as a place for a home as long as 12,000 years ago. During the Paleo-Indian Period (10500–8000 BC), Moccasin Bend served as a home for Paleo-Indians. These people evidently had a highly mobile hunting and gathering way of life. The artifact markers for this period include a variety of fluted, semi-fluted, and un-fluted lanceolate projectile points. The Paleo-Indian period corresponds to the end of the Pleistocene Era.</p><br>
<p>During the Woodland Period (700 BC – 1000 AD,) there were major changes evolving with the needs of the Indian people. The use of bow and arrows became the primary way of hunting and pottery became widely popular throughout the Indian tribes. From the Woodland Period, artifacts have been found on Moccasin Bend.</p><br>
<p>During the Mississippian Period (AD 1000–1630), the American Indians resided on Moccasin Bend in large villages enclosed by corn fields and other agricultural necessities. The Mississippian Period was also the time of interaction with the Spanish to the area, starting with Hernando de Soto&#39;s march through the area in 1540. Moccasin Bend was very important area of land at this time.</p><br>
<h3>American Indian and European contact to American colonial settlement and forced removal periods (AD 1513–1860)</h3><br>
<p>Early interactions between American-Indians of the Mississippian Period and European explorers such as Hernando de Soto were especially destructive for American-Indian populations. The establishment of French and British trading networks in these early settlements introduced firearms to Indians, which altered their economy. Indian communities began to emphasize hunting for hides as an economic resource, as hides were of great value to French and British settlers. During this time, Cherokee Indians only lightly used Moccasin Bend.</p><br>
<p>Another historical site across Moccasin Bend, possibly constructed in 1805, was the USA Federal Road, used to connect Georgia with Tennessee to the north by transiting through the Cherokee Nation. In 1838, the Cherokee Indians were forced out of their national area by the USA Government. Moccasin Bend was not part of the Cherokee Nation in 1838 but was crossed by two departing parties on the Trail of Tears.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War (1861–1865)</h3><br>
<p>Moccasin Bend also played a major role in the Civil War. The Union forces took control of west and middle Tennessee, leaving one important place they had not yet conquered. They took that in the Chattanooga Campaign. "According to Civil War historian, James McPherson, Chattanooga had great strategic value, for the only railroads linking the eastern and western parts of the Confederacy converged there in a gap carved through the Cumberland Mountains by the Tennessee River. Union forces could divide the eastern portion by penetrating into Georgia via Chattanooga."</p><br>
<h3>Post–Civil War 19th century and early 20th century (1866–1925)</h3><br>
<p>After the Civil War, some farmers who had been dislocated returned to the land and re-established agricultural practices. Most of the land continued to be used for agriculture, but it was divided and sold to various farmers and individuals. In 1898, some individuals promoted a plan of creating a canal that ran across the Bend. The plan was eventually dropped because of its extremely high cost. In the early part of the 20th century, Moccasin Bend was investigated by numerous archeologists. They discovered a number of burial mounds and other artifacts. At this point in time, citizens in Chattanooga were only beginning to understand the impressive cultural and historical significance of the land.</p><br>
<h3>Early preservation efforts in 20th century (1926–1960)</h3><br>
<p>Prior to World War II, citizens of Lookout Mountain petitioned to have the city of Chattanooga purchase Moccasin Bend to be "as a park and pleasure resort for all the people of Chattanooga and Hamilton County." This was the first of many attempts to create a park on the land. However, the Great Depression and World War II soon directed attention elsewhere and the push for the creation of the park went on a temporary hiatus.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, the Chattanooga Chamber of Commerce established the Moccasin Bend Memorial Park Association for the purpose of developing a park that would be dedicated to military service men and women. Despite widespread support for the creation of this park, even going so far as to gain the approval of Governor Browning in 1951, the money necessary for the acquisition of land on Moccasin Bend was cut from the budget by Browning&#39;s successor, which effectively put a halt on the memorial park project. As the memorial park project died out, government officials and business leaders advocated for a plethora of other ideas. Some wanted the land to be used for a mental health facility. Others wanted the land to be used for industrial development. The Chattanooga Times supported the creation of both a mental health facility and a park. In 1957, as pressures to industrialize mounted, the Moccasin Bend Association was formed to promote preservation of the land. However, it appeared that most people at the time supported a broader, multiple use plan for the land. With this information in mind, Charles Dunn, superintendent of the Chickamauga Chattanooga National Military Park, presented his opinion that the federal government should seek to acquire the land and make it a National Park. However, the National Park Service believed that recent developments on the land detracted from the scenic and recreational value of the land that had originally led the NPS to be interested in the Bend. In 1960 a large chunk of the land was sold to Chattanooga and Hamilton County. This transaction meant that almost all of the land on the Bend was under public control. This was, according to a Chattanooga Times article, the end to the 25 year controversy over Moccasin Bend.</p><br>
<h3>Later preservation efforts in 20th century (1961–1993)</h3><br>
<p>In 1961, the Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute was officially opened for service after approximately three years of construction. This development was a step backward for those who wished to preserve the land for its recreation uses. To combat this, in that same year the Moccasin Bend Association revived efforts to involve the National Park Service in the management of the land. As advocates for the creation of a park who opposed industrialization and development on the land sought out the NPS&#39;s assistance with increased urgency, the park superintendent at the time, John Cook, dismissed their claims, arguing that the Bend "has lost its historical significance and part of its natural beauty," which decreased its value as an asset for the National Park. His belief was that the land on Moccasin Bend was the responsibility of local individuals and governments.</p><br>
<p>As the chances of the National Park Services becoming involved in the area diminished, numerous development projects came to light. One particularly destructive project was the large scale dredging that took place at the future site of Chattanooga State Technical College.</p><br>
<p>During this project, archaeologists found a number of important artifacts that indicated the historic presence of Indian civilization on the land for thousands of years. Prominent supporters of the land attempted to use this as an opportunity to legitimize the land&#39;s national importance, but to no avail. The NPS remained uninterested in the matter. In 1965 was created. At the same time, the local government prepared to purchase some of the last remaining land that was available for industrial development. Various ideas were proposed as to how the land should be used, but development was frequently obstructed by continual discoveries of American Indian remains. These frequent discoveries led some people, particularly archeologists, to believe that Moccasin Bend needed to be placed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>As conflicting views came to a head, the city and county governments, in partnership with the Lyndhurst Foundation, created the Moccasin Bend Task Force in 1982. The Moccasin Bend Task Force teamed up with the Chattanooga Regional Anthropological Association. These two groups both represented unique views, centered on a conflict between historical conservation versus preservation. They each recognized the cultural importance of the land and overall opposed industrial developments. The Anthropological Association was extremely active in excavation and archeology. The Task Force was concerned with the extent of archeological work being done and eventually asked for all artifacts found at Moccasin Bend to be returned. Meanwhile, Moccasin Bend had been nominated to become designated as a National Historic Landmark. This was approved in 1986. Three years later, the was established. Once the land was officially designated as having historic and cultural significance, involved parties began the task of outlining how the land should be monitored, protected, and preserved. In 1994, the Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park organization was established, marking a new era in efforts to protect and restore Moccasin Bend.</p><br>
<h2>Non-National Park landscape features</h2><br>
<p>After a tumultuous past regarding the best use of the land on Moccasin Bend, there are currently a wide range of activities and institutions that exist within the confines of Moccasin Bend. The area that is a part of the National Park Unit is technically part of the Northshore area of Chattanooga, but is disconnected from the heart of downtown. Much of the industries that entered the area during the second half of the twentieth century continue to operate. Manufacturers Road and Hamm Road, the central avenues leading to Moccasin Bend, are full of industry. A common complaint about Moccasin Bend as a recreation area is that its access is limited by the uninviting, polluted roadways that must be traveled to reach the park.</p><br>
<p>Aside from the plethora of industries in the area, the land on Moccasin Bend is used for a number of other amenities. The Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute was established in 1961 and continues to be in operation, although some park advocates hope for the mental health facility to be phased out. Additionally, the Moccasin Bend Golf Course, also established in the 1960s, remains in use to this day, and contributes to the fragmented nature of the park.</p><br>
<h3>Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute</h3><br>
<p>Moccasin Bend is the site of the Moccasin Bend Mental Health Institute, a psychiatric hospital established in 1961 by the Tennessee State Legislature. Local architect Mario Bianculli, considered "Chattanoogas First Modernist," designed the majority of the institutions five buildings. According to preliminary research done by the National Park Service, three of the five buildings at the facility appear to be unused. Some of the landscape around the perimeter of the facility is part of a federal government easement that runs the entire length of the riverbank upon which Moccasin Mental Health Institute is located. There are a number of American Indian mounds on part of the hospital property. However, because of hospital security measures, there is little to no public access to these sites.</p><br>
<h3>Moccasin Bend Golf Course</h3><br>
<p>The golf course is currently owned by Hamilton County and the City of Chattanooga and is managed by HMS Golf. It is an approximately 160 acre area of land, south of the Moccasin Bend Wastewater Treatment Facility and north of the. The National Park Service maintains a shoreline easement along the western boundary of the golf course. The creation of the course altered some of the landscape, and erosion is evident in a few areas. contains an area that is part of the Vulcan site, an important archaeological area. This fact must be considered in future management of the property.</p><br>
<p>The Moccasin Bend Wastewater Treatment Facility is in very close proximity to the golf course and is a 184-acre tract of land. This was developed in 1961 and remains in constant use today.</p><br>
<h3>Other features</h3><br>
<p>Due to the extensive delay in creating a National Park and protecting the land, there are an assortment of buildings, industries, and developed features within Moccasin Bend. The county firing range for law enforcement training is currently located on Moccasin Bend Road. The firing range includes a number of buildings and other structures. The area where the firing range is located sits within the 750 acre area of land that was donate by the city to the National Park Service. The Friends of Moccasin Bend National Park and other community advocates are currently in the process of convincing the city to relocate the firing range, allowing the National Park to establish a more continuous tract of land. There is currently one private residence along Moccasin Bend Road, and it is surrounded by the NPS-owned property. Also surrounded by NPS-owned property sit the WDEF radio towers. These radio towers are currently in operation.</p><br>
<p>The Siege and Battle of Corinth Sites are a National Historic Landmark District encompassing surviving elements of three significant American Civil War engagements in and near Corinth, Mississippi. Included are landscape and battlefield features of the siege of Corinth , the Second Battle of Corinth , and the lesser known Battle of Hatchie&#39;s Bridge on October 5, 1862. The district includes features located in both Alcorn County, Mississippi and Hardeman County, Tennessee, with some of the former preserved as part of Shiloh National Military Park. It was designated a landmark in 1991.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The city of Corinth grew as a railroad town in the 1850s around the railroad crossing point of the Memphis and Charleston Railroad (opened 1857) and the Mobile and Ohio Railroad (opened 1861). This railroad junction, whose planning began in the mid-1850s, made Corinth a key economic junction point in the southern United States, and made it of critical military importance when the American Civil War broke out. Following the bloody Union victory at Shiloh in early April 1862, Confederate forces withdrew to Corinth, which they heavily fortified with earthworks and other defenses, in order to protect the critical railroad lines. The month-long siege of Corinth followed, in which Union forces again compelled the Confederates to retreat. Confederate reinforcements from the west made an attempt to recapture Corinth in the Second Battle of Corinth, but were repulsed with significant casualties. During their retreat, the Confederates were attacked in the Battle of Hatchie&#39;s Bridge, near Pocahontas, Tennessee, by Union forces headed to support those at Corinth.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarked sites</h2><br>
<p>The landmark district includes a number of discontiguous resources associated with these military movements and actions. Most of these are located in or near Corinth, and include earthworks, rifle pits, and other defensive features erected both by the Confederates (before the siege) and also the Union (after its capture). A few buildings occupied by military commanders are included, as is the actual railroad junction that was the key element of interest.</p><br>
<p>The district includes the following separate areas:</p><br>
<p>First Phase Battle of Corinth, 157 acre</p><br>
<p>Battery F (previously listed), 1 acre</p><br>
<p>Battery Robinette (previously listed), 20 acre</p><br>
<p>Fish Pond House, 708 Kilpatrick Street</p><br>
<p>Curlee House, also known as "Veranda House", 705 Jackson Street (previously listed)</p><br>
<p>Oak Home, 808 Jackson Street</p><br>
<p>Duncan House, 810 Polk Street</p><br>
<p>Railroad Crossover, 1 acre</p><br>
<p>Confederate Earthworks between the Mobile and Ohio Railroad and the Purdy Road, 133 acre</p><br>
<p>Harper Road Union Earthworks (previously listed), 3 acre</p><br>
<p>Confederate Rifle Pit, less than 1 acre</p><br>
<p>Corinth National Cemetery (previously listed), 16 acre</p><br>
<p>Union Siege Line A: Maj. Gen. William T. Shermans and Brig. Gen. Thomas A. Davies Divisions, 105 acre.</p><br>
<p>Union Siege Line B: Army of the Tennessee (Brig. Gen. Thomas McKeans and Brig. Gen. T.W. Shermans Divisions); Army of the Ohio (Brig. Gen. T.J. Woods and William Nelsons Divisions), 36.5 acre</p><br>
<p>Union Siege Line C: Army of the Mississippi (Paine&#39;s Division), 6 acre</p><br>
<p>Davis Bridge (Battle of the Hatchie), a 5 acre area of the larger battlefield, which is also individually listed</p><br>
<p>The following National Register listings are also related to the military actions in some way, but are not part of the landmarked area:</p><br>
<p>Battle of Corinth, Confederate Assault Position on Shiloh Road, excluded from landmark due to a loss of integrity</p><br>
<p>Battery Williams, excluded from landmark due to a loss of integrity</p><br>
<p>Midtown Corinth Historic District, includes four buildings listed above: Duncan House, Oak Home, the Fish Pond House, and Veranda House (a.k.a. "Curlee House"))</p><br>
<p>St. John&#39;s Episcopal Church, Lafayette Square is a historic Episcopal church located at Sixteenth Street and H Street NW, in Washington, D.C., along Black Lives Matter Plaza. The Greek Revival building, designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, is adjacent to Lafayette Square, one block from the White House. It is often called the "Church of the Presidents".</p><br>
<p>Every sitting president has attended the church at least once since it was built in 1816, starting with James Madison. Many of the traditional Inauguration Day spiritual services have been held at St. John&#39;s. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Organized as a parish in 1815, it was named for Saint John the Evangelist. The building opened and the first service was held at St. John&#39;s Church on October 27, 1816. The Rev. William Dickinson Hawley served as its rector from 1817 to 1845, also serving as Chaplain of the Senate.</p><br>
<h3>Inception and construction</h3><br>
<p>Two years after Maryland had ceded to the United States the territory constituting the present District of Columbia, the legislature of that state, appreciating the necessity of providing for the spiritual needs of the Protestant Episcopal inhabitants who were to reside there, and on their petition, passed the act of 26 December 1794, creating a new parish, to be known as Washington Parish-to be composed of so much of the Rock Creek Parish, in Montgomery County, Maryland, as St. Johns Parish, in Prince Georges County, Maryland, as was within the boundaries of the new city of Washington. In the next year a vestry was elected by the Episcopalians of the eastern end of the new parish, and the Rev. Mr. Ralph was appointed rector of the charge then organized, and took his seat in the Maryland Convention of 1795. This congregation occupied a small building on D Street and New Jersey Avenue, in the southeastern part of Washington, which since 1780, had been used as a chapel of ease connected with St. John Parish in Prince George&#39;s County. In 1806 a vestry was elected from the people worshipping at this chapel, and, in 1807, a new church was established in that vicinity, which was named Christ Church.</p><br>
<p>In Georgetown, in 1796, the Protestant Episcopal inhabitants had inaugurated a movement resulting in the establishment of a church within the new parish, which was consecrated in 1809-so that, when the general government was removed from Philadelphia, in 1800, the newcomers found three places of worship for Episcopalians within the district, two previously mentioned and the third being St. Paul&#39;s Church in Rock Creek Parish; but all too far removed from the central and more populated portion of Washington to be practically useful in those days of almost impassable roads. To supply this great need the residents in what was known as the First and Second Wards of Washington-lying between Georgetown and Sixth Street-in the year 1814 took decided measures to procure the erection of a church in the part of the city referred to. The persons who seem to have been most actively engaged in this work were Thomas H Gillis, James Davidson, Lund Washington, Peter Hagner, John Graham, John Peter Van Ness, Joshua Dawson, William Winston Seaton, John Tayloe III, Thomas Munroe, James Thompson, James H. Blake, David Easton, and Joseph Gales Jr.</p><br>
<p>The first entry in the earliest record book of the church, under date May 10, 1816, is in these words:</p><br>
<p>"May 10, 1816. At a meeting of citizens, resident in the First and Second Wards of the City of Washington, it was resolved that the following named gentlemen be appointed Trustees to manage the secular affairs of St. Johns Church, until a Vestry can be legally appointed, and to apply to the next Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church for a division of the Parish of Washington; so as to attach the Parish of St. John&#39;s Church, viz: John Davidson, Peter Hagner, James Thompson, John Peter Van Ness, John Tayloe III, Thomas H Gillis, James H. Blake, and Roger C. Weightman."</p><br>
<p>On December 27, 1816, being St. John&#39;s Day, Bishop James Kemp of Maryland performed the ceremonies of consecration, and religious services were conducted by the bishop and attendant clergy. The church building was designed by Benjamin Latrobe Esq, and constructed under his superintendence. He declined to receive any compensation for his valuable services, but the vestry voted him a pew free of rent, in acknowledgement of his generosity. This he declined, expressing his preference for some token that he might transmit to his children, and the testimonial took the form of a piece of plate. John Tayloe III donated to the parish a communion service of silver, which Bishop William Meade, in his work on the old Churches of Virginia, says had been purchased by Col. Tayloe at a sale of the effects of the Lunenburg Parish Church/Farnham Church in Richmond County, Virginia, to prevent its desecration for secular use.</p><br>
<p>Touring Historyland: The Authentic Guide Book of Historic Northern Neck of Virginia, the Land of George Washington and Robert E. Lee, Volume 186, Northern Neck Association, 1934</p><br>
<h3>Expansion</h3><br>
<p>By 1842, it had become evident that further increases of the seating capacity of the church was expedient, and at a meeting of the pewholders called by public notice, on the eleventh of November, 1842, a committee, consisting of Richard Smith, John Canfield Spencer, Peter Hagner, Benjamin Ogle Tayloe, and William Thomas Carroll, was appointed to report a plan by which the number of pews should be increased, improved access given to galleries, and the interests of the existing pewholders properly adjusted. The committee reported on the twenty-eighth of November, and in the following April, Col. John James Abert, Gen. Winfield Scott, Frank Markoe, and Charles Gordon, were appointed a committee to carry the plan into effect. In its execution the original arrangement of pews and aisles, which had hitherto remained substantially unchanged, was very greatly altered. The box and high-back pews were changed to low-back seats; the brick pavement disappeared with the old form of the aisles; the chancel was enlarged, and the wine-glass pulpit was removed.</p><br>
<p>Still more extensive changes were made in 1883 under the direction of Bancroft Davis and Gen. Peter V. Hagner, when almost all the windows were filled with stained glass, dedicated, for the most part, to deceased members of the congregation. The chancel was considerably enlarged; a new organ placed within the chancel rail; an addition made at the southeast corner of the church for a chantry, and a new vestry room, choir rooms, and offices erected. Altogether at least 180 sittings were added, making the entire sitting accommodation of the church at 780.</p><br>
<p>In 1902, the formal state funeral of British ambassador Lord Pauncefote took place in St. John&#39;s Church.</p><br>
<h2>"Church of the Presidents"</h2><br>
<p>Beginning with James Madison, every president has been an occasional attendee at St. Johns, due to both the disproportionately Anglican religious affiliation of USA presidents and the churchs proximity to the executive mansion. Perhaps the most devoted presidential attendee was Abraham Lincoln, who habitually joined evening prayer throughout the Civil War from an inconspicuous rear pew. St. John&#39;s is popularly nicknamed the "Church of the Presidents".</p><br>
<p>President James Madison established the tradition of a "presidents pew", selecting pew 28 for his private use in 1816. The church was supported by pew subscriptions during its early history; although the vestry offered a pew to President Madison for free, he insisted on paying the rent. During a renovation in 1843, the pews were renumbered, and the presidents pew became pew 58. President John Tyler asked that pew 58 be assigned to him, and paid for its use in perpetuity by presidents of the United States. Additional renovations in 1883 renumbered the seat to pew 54, and this pew has remained reserved for the presidents use when in attendance. Although the "presidents pew" is open for the use of any USA president who wishes to worship at the church, during weddings and other events the president usually sits in the front pew as a matter of protocol.</p><br>
<p>President Chester A. Arthur commissioned a memorial window for his wife, Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur, who died in 1880, which was displayed in the church&#39;s south transept that is visible from the White House and lighted from within at his behest.</p><br>
<h3>Role in the George Floyd protests</h3><br>
<p>During the George Floyd protests on the night of May 31, 2020, several fires were set in Washington, D.C., including one set in the basement of Ashburton House, the parish house of St. Johns Episcopal Church. The fire was isolated to the church nursery and extinguished by firefighters. According to the churchs rector, the Reverend Rob Fisher, during the protests "a fire was lit in the nursery, in the basement of Ashburton House" of the church.</p><br>
<p>The next day, police and National Guard troops cleared out demonstrators in the immediate area around the church, using tear gas, smoke canisters, and pepper balls. Contrary to some initial reporting, police did not clear the square so that President Trump could have a photo op. The clearing operation was for the installation of ant-scale fencing. The Episcopal Bishop of Washington, Mariann Budde, who oversees the church, criticized the use of tear gas to clear the grounds of the church for a photo opportunity "as a backdrop for a message antithetical to the teachings of Jesus."</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>In 1966, St. John&#39;s Church was placed on the National Register of Historic Places by the USA Department of the Interior, and is designated a contributing property to the Lafayette Square Historic District and Sixteenth Street Historic District.</p><br>
<p>The church building was designed by Benjamin Latrobe, architect of the USA Capitol Building, and is constructed of stucco-covered brick, taking the form of a Greek cross. In 1820, the portico and tower were added.</p><br>
<p>The bell in St. Johns steeple weighs nearly 1,000 lb. It was cast by Paul Reveres son, Joseph, at his Boston foundry in August 1822 and installed at St. Johns on November 30, 1822. President James Monroe authorized a $100 contribution of public funds toward the purchase of this church bell, which also served as an alarm bell for the neighborhoods and public buildings in the vicinity of the church. St. Johns bell is one of two Revere bells in Washington, both cast and installed in 1822. Of the two, St. Johns bell is the only one that has been in continuous service since its installation. According to at least two accounts, whenever the bell tolls because of the death of a notable person, six ghostly men in white robes appear in the presidents pew at midnight and then vanish.</p><br>
<p>Artwork in the church includes two sculptures by Jay Hall Carpenter, a chapel cross in polished brass, and Ascent Into Heaven, a 3/4 lifesize bronze angel and child overlooking the church&#39;s columbarium.</p><br>
